tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-46676939566569964572024-03-18T21:21:27.598-07:00Science variaMärthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.comBlogger35125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-24858274145728217982014-04-15T13:06:00.001-07:002014-04-15T13:06:40.911-07:00Meteor speed and heat relation<br />
For following calculations i used 2 calculators.<br />
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Speed-heat relationship was calculated with this <a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/kintem.html#c4">calculator</a> using iron (amu = ~56) and most probable speeds are mentioned here. Lighter elements are faster with same heat. <br />
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<a href="http://www.colby.edu/chemistry/PChem/Hartree.html">Calculator</a> for finding relation between electronvolts and temperature.<br />
Kinetic energy calculations were done with mass in kg times speed in meters per second squared.<br />
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From perspective of meteor the atmosphere would be coming towards meteor with approximately speed of meteor. <br />
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1000 C may be achieved at ~600m/s.<br />
1510 C (melting point of steel) has atom speeds of 727 m/s. <br />
2750 C (boiling point of steel) at 945 m/s. <br />
10 000 C at 1740 m/s.<br />
Common orbiting objects move <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_speed">~6-8 km/s</a> and 7,7 km/s could heat iron up to 200 000 C. <br />
Escape velocity is about 11 km/s and such objects could heat to 400 000 C. Obviously any satellite flying through atmosphere is highly likely to boil away to metal vapour unless it descents almost horizontally so it could slow down in thin atmosphere. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_probes">Helios</a> satellite may is one of the fastest satellites made with speed of 70 km/s which could heat up to 17 million C which in turn can be hot enough to cause x-rays (~1400 eV). It's mass is 370 kg so it has ~900 billion joules of kinetic energy. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_%28energy%29">comparison</a> lightning strike can be 1 billion joules and 1,4 billion joules is theoretical minimum needed to melt ton of steel.<br />
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As humans can create satellites with such speeds it is possible that they may be used as weapons considering 1 ton of random material could release energy comparable to thousands of lightning strikes released within couple of seconds. Helios 2 took about 3 months to get close to sun and in this time in picked up speed partly from gravity of nearby massive bodies. Another way to get them fast would be to send a lot of rocket fuel in space and build a giant military "meteor" to speed up quickly (within hour) as rockets can reach from zero to orbiting speed in ~10 minutes. <br />
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Andromeda galaxy is moving towards milky way with speed of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy">~300 km/s</a>. This could heat iron up to 3 billion degrees. While collisions may be unlikely due to huge distances between stars and planets it would still be destructive to galaxies to have such high intensity collision as those which happen are hot enough to create x-rays and gamma rays. 1 gram of matter moving with 300 km/s has about 45 gigajoules of energy and those on planets in colliding galaxies are likely to see even single grams worth of dust brighten the sky with ~50 lightning strikes worth of energy.<br />
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<a href="http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/multiwavelength_astronomy/multiwavelength_museum/ant.html">Antennae galaxies</a> have been colliding long enough for widespread x ray production. Most of that skull shaped structure has huge patches where heat is high enough for x-ray production.<br />
This may be also how Andromeda and Milky way start looking when their planets and stars hit each other so fast that their atoms fly apart in every direction with more than escape velocity. That leaves behind quickly expanding debris zones which may destroy other nearby stars and planets or at least heat atmospheres too much for life. <br />
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Also this 300 km/s speed may be enough to cause nuclear reactions. Stars that reach about 3 billion degrees burn <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon-burning_process">silicon to iron</a> and other metals. If tiny icy comet hit atmosphere at 300 km/s then small amount of it could turn to metals leaving behind cloud of metals and silicon. 3 billion degrees is about 0,25 MeV but each proton and neutron is bound to nucleus with up to <a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/nucbin.html">~9 MeV</a> binding energy. Hydrogen fusion can happen at about 1 billion degrees so if those 2 galaxies met and 2 watery planets collided then they could release fusion energy. <br />
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To break apart all nucleons with ~8 MeV heat energy would need about 100 billion degrees and even metals could vaporize to hydrogen (protons) and neutrons. 100 billion degrees could be achieved with ~6000 km/s in case of iron. <br />
<br />Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-87558593818754448392014-02-13T12:58:00.001-08:002014-02-13T12:59:02.317-08:00Topological insulators and Hall effect Topological insulators are partial insulators that are insulators inside themselves but are very good conductors on their sides or edges. Quality of topological insulators (<b>TI</b>) usually improves if internal content is not conductive and surface should preferrably have higher density of electrons than inside. Some researchers even consider TIs potential room temperature superconductors. Mostly they are combination of different elements like most insulators but at least in case of graphene, which is conductor, can also become topological insulator which only conducts on edges but for that it has to be cooled to 0,3C above absolute zero and also be in 35 Tesla magnetic field. <br />
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<a href="http://www.nature.com/news/lab-made-supermaterial-that-could-boost-computing-exists-in-nature-too-1.12569">Kawazulite</a> is natural example of TI. Like artificial ones they commonly have a metallic reflective appearance. Like many TIs it contains bismuth, tellurium and selenium. <br />
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<span style="font-weight: normal;">Overview of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_effect">Hall effect</a> which is related topic to TIs. When current goes through magnetic field (B) then electrons get pushed to one side due to Lorentz force. If electrodes get connected to these sides then these gathering of electron on one side causes measurable voltage difference (V<span style="font-size: xx-small;">H</span>) </span>between sides.<br />
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Above <a href="http://jqi.umd.edu/glossary/quantum-hall-effect-and-topological-insulators">illustration</a> shows quantum Hall effect in semiconductor but it also describes closely how electrons behave in TI. Inside electrons orbit in circles but near border they skip along like stones on water as they keep on trying to circle but keep deflecting from edge. Inner structure of material can push electrons to move and when this moving is in circles then material may get enough internal magnetic field to start moving other electrons around these magnetic field lines and in TI's it is called spin quantum Hall effect. One difference between this and usual Hall effect is that spin quantum version causes oppositely moving electrons on sides. <br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Applying <a href="http://phys.org/news/2013-12-pressure-semiconductor-state.html">high pressure</a> (~100 000 atmospheres) to semiconductors turns at least one of them to topological insulator. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TI could be <a href="http://phys.org/news/2013-04-superconducting-qualities-topological-insulators.html">superconducting</a> unless there are excess electrons inside material but doping
surface with electronegative substance to attract electrons there can reduce that problem.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="http://phys.org/news/2013-11-topological-insulator-symmetry-good.html">Bismuth tellurochloride</a> (BiTeCl) is maybe 1st topological insulator
discovered which has one side positive and other negative due to inner
structure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Electrical currents flowed on
upper side but not on other sides. Semiconducting transistors and most
TIs materials are either n or p type but by layering many alternating layers of
bismuth, tellurium and chlorine on top of each other, BiTeCl starts to have
those charge differences within same piece. One of the hopes with such material
is that their sides could function as p-n junctions where current is one
directional. Outside
magnetic fields can create channels on the sides that seem to conduct
electricity with no resistance.</span> <br />
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Illustration
of graphene in conditions that make it TI. Electrons with certain spin
can move along edge (shown with blue arrows) but electrons with opposite
spins (red arrows) get blocked on these sides so in general currents
flow around graphene flakes either clockwise or counterclockwise. <br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">While <a href="http://phys.org/news/2013-12-graphene-host-exotic-quantum-electronic.html">graphene</a> is conductor in room temperature it could behave slightly
like TI under intense (35 tesla) magnetic field (to cause Hall effect) and 0,3
C above absolute zero which allows it to transport electrons with different
spins in different directions. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Magnetic
field lines could be perpendicular to surface graphene or also parallel to surface
and both caused these spin dependent flow current. </span></div>
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<i>Common use for TIs according to maybe most articles i read about TIs is their supposed good use in quantum computers or spintronics devices. So far the only example of spin use in any computer part i could understand is illustrated below. </i><br />
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(<a href="http://www.azoquantum.com/Article.aspx?ArticleID=8">source</a>)<br />
A) with usual current there is similar amount of up and down spins which spread evenly on both sides but voltage between these sides stays 0 because there is even number of electron on both sides. B) by using ferromagnet (FM) electrons can be sent with same spin. Opposite spin electrons shown red are created on other side (<i>maybe also with ferromagnets but turned 180 degrees</i>) and electrons with opposite spins can flow on same edge if they are going in opposite direction. This way electrons can concentrate on same side and create voltage differences. According to authors this time spins were separated due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_Hall_effect">Spin Hall effect</a>, where opposite spins move to opposite sign of material without need for outside magnetic field. In this case outer magnetic field not needed and it can even disrupt electron flow by making them rotate in small circles. These spin differences can be measured with light as different electron spins give differently polarized light.<br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>Above example with spins influencing light polarization may be usable in computer security by pushing certain secret amount of electron on certain regions and letting suitably polarized light expose data (maybe with interference exposing data on some screen or letting light push important electron on transistors in direction to some other transistor that gives data signal). Circular polarization keeps rotating its polarization direction depending how much it has traveled so bumpy surface may shine with differently polarized light on different heights which has potential for secret data storage.</i><br />
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Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-47280308896857929742013-09-25T13:37:00.001-07:002013-09-28T15:47:13.319-07:00Essay on possibility of x-ray and gamma ray band communication<br />
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As more primitive civilizations are mainly experienced with
radio waves and visible light they may be "left in dark" by other advanced species that are using frequencies people can’t use in communication like x-rays and gamma rays. As illustrated above observers on ground can mainly detect visible light and some radio waves but other radiation types get mostly absorbed by atmosphere. Gamma ray bursts were discovered by early satellites that were designed to detect nuclear explosions but also happened to detect gamma ray bursts from space.<br />
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High energy radiation including x-rays release electrons (e) from atoms they hit and lose energy in process. Gamma rays and high energy ions from space can cause release of many electrons, protons and if they have enough energy then also some gamma ray and x-ray photons (<a href="http://www.redchairblogs.com/starstruck/2013/06/14/is-interplanetary-space-too-hot-for-humans/">image source</a>). This would scramble, weaken and distort any message sent in form of ionizing radiation. <br />
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These can’t go far in air and
are therefore mainly reachable by some intelligent life form operating in vacuum of space.<br />
Although destructive to whatever they hit x-rays and gamma rays have high frequency that may be used to carry more data. For example x-rays have <span style="font-size: x-small;">3×10<sup>16</sup> Hz to 3×10<sup>19</sup> Hz <span style="font-size: small;">and gamma rays have higher frequency. Good enough control of x-rays would allow passing of up to </span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;">3×10<sup>16</sup> to 3×10<sup>19</sup> <span style="font-size: small;">data values every second which could mean up to 30 thousand to 30 million terabytes per second which could allow civilizations to send out almost all their recordings very fast and overview of their species within a second.</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Creating such beam of data could be achievable by humans already but recording this data may not be possible yet.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUWe_mgQ7WSvmtWArX9rwo3urDFjF7BzhurXx1h5xzi0-eJT2rq9qa2XoJuj9ELe8dtv6e896Evhaj0czKy8xCbzeVRdMPTpBz0oUCfkmuwOGLNBR5Iutce14btOiz6VlrtomH8FPYUBtP/s1600/xraych.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUWe_mgQ7WSvmtWArX9rwo3urDFjF7BzhurXx1h5xzi0-eJT2rq9qa2XoJuj9ELe8dtv6e896Evhaj0czKy8xCbzeVRdMPTpBz0oUCfkmuwOGLNBR5Iutce14btOiz6VlrtomH8FPYUBtP/s1600/xraych.gif" /></a></div>
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<b>Sources for x-ray and gamma ray data</b>. At least x-ray signals
may be achieved by irradiating different elements that pass some intense
electron beam source to create resonance x-ray signal (<b>K-alpha and K-beta</b>) which depends on element and every element would release different x-ray frequencies and energies.<br />
Overview of x-rays different elements release can be found in this <a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/tables/kxray.html">table</a>. Energies vary from 800 eV (electronvolt) x-rays in neon to ~100 000 eV gamma rays in plutonium where lightest elements have lowest energy radiations and heavier radioactive substances like uranium producing ~100 000 eV radiation. At first every extra proton increases radiation energy by ~200 eV but it gradually increases to 2000 eV with each proton. Due to wide range of energy levels these different elements could be used to create different data points. These don't have to be restricted to bits or even bytes as there are over 100 elements available and each could be used to send some symbol from numbers to letters and other needed symbols. X-ray antenna may be particle accelerator that sends particles into strong electron beam that causes release of x-rays which are then directed towards desired location with opening in radiation shielding. These elements may need to be very close to each other in this particle accelerator as x-rays have wavelength of 10-0,01 nanometers and that lower end is about half of atomic diameter. If different atoms could be accelerated with 1 nanometer between them with speed of light then they may create x-rays with ~1 nanometer wavelength but easier way may be to use several accelerators working together with serious precision to get many separate x-ray beams directed to intended location in space. <br />
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Something analogous could be used to create gamma ray beams. Neutron radiation or just collision of atoms moving near speed of light can create nuclear fission with certain
energy/frequency and that depend on isotope which could be sent in orderly line
towards neutron stream. Different isotopes (about <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_nuclides_%28combined%29">3000</a> are known including very short lived isotopes) could be used to create different gamma ray photons and with thousands of isotopes to work with each isotope collision could create 1 value out of thousands which may easily be letters in many alphabets, numbers, pixel data etc. so even if they create 1 billion collisions per second they could still send several bytes worth of data with every collision. If 1000 isotopes were usable then 1000 in binary is <a href="http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~gurwitz/core5/nav2tool.html">10 bits</a> long. 3000 isotopes could carry 22 bits with each isotope. </div>
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<b>Data readers and recorders</b>.<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Trickiest part is counting signals from x-ray or gamma ray source. Easiest way to separate signals would be to use radiation detectors behind different radiation shields. For example one shield allowing any photon with over 800 eV to pass, another for those with 1000 eV and so on for every energy level different elements could create. When capturing high enough energy gamma rays then there is likelihood of atoms splitting to new elements and different elements need different minimum energy amount to go through fission. Resulting radiation and formation of elements could also have some role as data reader. </span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKm81tsoWHbYEhqOAYxFli5kGk0ieI4iuVfGbnXyjbZu3qSx7UfJHQErzBhJQX7t94qveZpuCf5HyRLDf8dG1fGqOExrLU44ACazCOCmdOKqQSFdNIudpUad6eCCaGTpThGJpivzTAVkk6/s1600/GRB_BATSE_12lightcurves.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="631" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKm81tsoWHbYEhqOAYxFli5kGk0ieI4iuVfGbnXyjbZu3qSx7UfJHQErzBhJQX7t94qveZpuCf5HyRLDf8dG1fGqOExrLU44ACazCOCmdOKqQSFdNIudpUad6eCCaGTpThGJpivzTAVkk6/s640/GRB_BATSE_12lightcurves.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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Overview of several gamma ray bursts. Most last several seconds but few last for milliseconds. <span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">More powerful photons can activate all detectors
behind weaker shields but one way to have some order would be to create
bursts that start strongest or weakest and move to opposite extreme with
detectors recording most powerful recent photons. </span>Most of them have somewhat gradual fall in intensity which may help record their content as they often jump to some maximum, then fall until jumping up in intensity again and that could help with reading most energetic photons as detectors and also constantly change which electrode is going to transmit signal from most powerful photon. <br />
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<br />
In case there is intelligent life causing gamma ray burst and they want to be found then it's likely they use elements, energy levels and timing that is different from natural sources. For example using wolfram (x-ray machines use wolfram due to heat resistance) and other heat resistant elements which are unlikely to randomly be concentrated but likely to be used by creatures wanting to have heat resistant components. Maybe sign of one pure element, then another and like that for around a minute. In case they want to hide and intimidate they may wait until there is distant galaxy behind them and send high energy burst towards some planet where locals may think the source was several billion light years away and hopelessly hard to reach while also seemingly having some scary energy bursts coming from that far.Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-24832892437914310202013-08-05T11:46:00.001-07:002013-08-05T11:49:42.600-07:00Thymus and its role in protecting body against overactive immune system<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDlWe_1yeh4QyNmzs5cfELaxmXtXoSZxysVogrin086g0a6q1aVEwhjkHNXRaiHrH5smS_6s8c_ajEyhwwqHwuxnz-vmtCISlPRiA1Hl2Cji2DKevmCefeaFFb-w04SiSp_Tq_tnmQHzpo/s1600/Illu_thymus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDlWe_1yeh4QyNmzs5cfELaxmXtXoSZxysVogrin086g0a6q1aVEwhjkHNXRaiHrH5smS_6s8c_ajEyhwwqHwuxnz-vmtCISlPRiA1Hl2Cji2DKevmCefeaFFb-w04SiSp_Tq_tnmQHzpo/s320/Illu_thymus.jpg" width="287" /></a></div>
<b>Summary</b><br />
<br />
Thymus is involved in removing T cells that may attack body and if it fails then it may cause wide range of autoimmune disorders where T cells may potentially kill any cells type. T cells are produced in way which makes it possible for majority of them to attack body and this is checked in thymus as thymus produces any protein any other tissue produces including neural tissue. Immature T cells which don't have neither CD4 or CD8 receptors are not active but they get activated within thymus. In thymus large "nurse" cells swallow these T cells inside them (and after filling would not take in other T cells until old ones get removed) where they mature by getting one of those 2 receptor types. Those with CD8 would become T killer cells that attack damaged cells including cancers and those with CD4 become T helper cells which help at finding targets for T killer cells. Less commonly those with CD4 become regulatory T cells that inhibit immune system and these cells may form other T cells in case of chronic inflammation. If those large cells detect that T cells are likely to attack body or just malformed then they cause death of these T cells. About 95% of T cells get killed in thymus because they were not formed correctly or they showed potential to attack body. While T cells have lifespan lasting about weeks they may become memory cells if they they are needed during infection after which they may become T memory cells that survive about decade in bone marrow, spleen and lymphoid tissue.<br />
Thymus produces all those different proteins mainly with few proteins. One such is AIRE (autoimmune regulatory element) which binds to silenced DNA regions which happen to have positively charged side-chains that stick to negatively charged DNA. AIRE is attached to several proteins (common to proteins involved in gene regulation) among which is CREB that adds negatively charged parts to histones which then come loose from DNA and allow RNA polymerase to express that gene. Usually AIRE causes 1 cell to express one cluster of genes and neighboring cell may produce different cluster of cells (<a href="http://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/28/1A/295.full.pdf">~10%</a> of thymic cells express neural genes including oxytocin and nerve growth factor genes). If AIRE is mutated seriously enough then this T cell selection may not happen. Similar things may happen if thymus gets removed if having heart surgery on small kids (removed because it gets in the way) and sometime tumors in thymus if cells that don't express AIRE form the tumor. AIRE has less known roles in <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048612/">other organs</a> as young embryos, all internal organs from heart, liver, spleen, testis, ovaries to bone marrow and muscles produce AIRE as well although they don't have such control over immune system as thymus.<br />
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<b>Citations and additions</b><br />
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<![endif]--><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11978634"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Type I</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> is autoimmune disorder where T cells cause death of insulin containing cells during childhood and at least in some cases it is associated with thymus not producing insulin within itself so cells that produce it elsewhere are attacked by T cells.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Example of
APECED progression on <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12625412">39 year old</a> woman. At age 3 she developed chronic candidiasis (white fungal infection in mouth and mucus membranes) which usually starts within first few years of someone with APECED. At age 11 she got hypoparathyroidism which slows metabolism. At 23 she got diagnosed with chronic hepatitis. Addison’s disease (low adrenaline gland activity) and type 1 diabetes at 27 and in her 30s her muscles started weakening
that made her bedridden by 39. This one was more rare APECED type which shows if 1 allele is mutated but most APECED cases happen if both parents had mutated version of AIRE.</span></div>
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<br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Thymus
grows after <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15493593">castration or adrenalectomy</a>. Thymus and hypothalamus/pituitary
gland seem to mutually regulate each other. Females tend to have more
antibodies of all classes than men and estrogen increases levels of circulating
antibodies. Estrogen also shortens time to organ rejection after
transplantation. Estrogens reduce activities of natural killer and T-cells as well as
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circulating naive T-cells in HIV patients.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Loss of
AIRE is common causes for <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3338656/">infertility</a> in at least women as part of APECED. Alopecia
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that ovaries produce. Mice with AIRE knockout had delayed puberty but all had
puberty. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Only 50%
were able to have at least 1 litter and 16% gave birth to second litter. 83% of
previously bred mice had lost all ovarian follicular reserves. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Among virgin females 25% lost follicules by
week 8 and by 20th week 50-60% had lost follicules. Their ovulation and
fertilization rates were normal. Autoimmunity may also cause miscarriages.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Follicle loss was associated with increased
(~5 times) serum follicle-stimulating hormone levels and ovarian invasion by
CD3+ T-cells. About third of those who reach menopause before 40 had
autoimmunity as cause. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Part of thymic
work happens through MHC I and II proteins present on surface of thymic cells
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in thymus before they could activate and cause autoimmunity.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3591132/">Development</a>
of T-cells is supervised by 2 cell types. In thymus they get engulfed by
epithelial “nurse cells” (located from medulla to cortex) that remove ~95% of immature
T-cells for having autoimmune potential or which are not developed enough. Outside
thymus regulatory cells would restrict T-cell activity to reduce damage to
healthy cells. If thymus fills with immature T-cells then new ones can’t enter
until old ones get removed or leave. T-cells are guided by chemokines and held
by adhesion molecules like selectins and integrins. Adhesion molecules may be
expressed partially by oxytocin, androgens, estrogens, vasopressin,
neurotensin, insulin growth factor 2, glucocorticoids, acetylcholine, histamine
and serotonin. Thymus in mammals starts to lose mass during puberty and it can speed
up with stress or steroid hormones. Castration can reduce loss of T-cell
function during aging as testosterone causes apoptosis in thymus through TNF.
Nurse cells release thymic hormone thymulin which is needed to produce Th1
cytokines IL-2 and interferon-gamma in tyhmus. Thymulin can be released when
thymic cells are exposed to endorphins and enkephalins. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Adenosine and its receptors seem needed or
causing apoptosis in T-cells. Regulatory T-cells (Treg) exit thymus similarly
to other T-cells but Treg cells reduce inflammation. GABA agonists can increase weight of thymus
and they increase cell division in thymus. Inducible Treg cells are formed outside of thymus
commonly during chronic infections or towards antigens produced by unharmful
bacteria in intestines. Glucocorticoids and nicotine stimulate activity of Treg cells.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Thymic
epithelial cells (TEC) are one of two cell types that help against self immunity.
TEC produce almost every hormone and substance body<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>produces. <a href="http://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/28/1A/295.full.pdf">~10%</a> of TEC produce most of neural
hormones and other neural proteins/peptides<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">.</span></span></div>
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RNA polymerases near un-methylated histones may have produced short RNA
molecules with length of 50-100 base pairs but AIRE is needed for rest of the
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Thymus
seems to protect from autoimmunity throughout lifespan as in case a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3073725/">67 year old</a>
woman with thymic tumor got APECED type autoimmune disorders. Her tumor
happened to have cells that didn’t express AIRE while her AIRE gene didn’t seem
mutated.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3474819/">RegulatoryT cells</a> (containing CD25 and CD4 receptors) can suppress immune responses and
they can be found in many types of cancers. T killer cells can attack damaged
cells, including cancer cells, unless immunosuppressive interference keeps them
from attacking cancer or other abnormal cells. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>In case ovarian
cancer their proportion kept increasing as cancer progressed (from 0,3% in
early stages to 2,5% in late stage cancer). Proportion of regulatory T cells
increased twofold compared to T killer cells in that time. Loss of regulatory T
cells did slow growth of tumors by up to ~80% but they still grew.</span></div>
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<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Lack of
regulatory T cells seems to be involved among causes or symptoms of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3375076/?report=classic">multiple sclerosis</a>. Tregs produce anti-inflammatory cytokines to reduce or stop
excessive inflammation.</span><br />
<br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1808970/?report=classic">Skin problems</a> that ~25-40% people with APECED get include patchy hair loss, wider
alopecia (hair loss) and loss of skin pigment which may turn skin black people white in patches. AIRE is produced also in urinary tract, genitals,
gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, thyroid glands, adrenal glands and
brain.AIRE
production can be caused by TNF (tumor necrosis factor). TNF is relatively intensely produced in thymus and in in
adults it’s mainly produced in medullary thymic cells.</span></div>
<br />
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3312912/">TNF levels</a>increase during infections. Excessive TNF can cause some thymic atrophy. After
infection TNF levels rise in blood in 7 days and in thymus in ~14 days. Glucocorticoid
hormones during intense stress promote apoptosis of more mature T cells in thymus.
Infections stimulate movements of white blood cells from thymus to other organ
like spleen and lymphoid organs several times which can be amplified by
additional injection of TNF. Immature T cells are also more likely to leave
thymus due to effects of TNF. TNF may act as stop signal to white blood cells
as it is concentrated in place of inflammation where it binds with fibronectin
that itself is involved in wound healing. </span></div>
Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-80329955726477779512013-05-30T08:44:00.000-07:002013-05-30T08:44:45.341-07:00Electrostatic attractions in proteins that bind with DNA<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZliM7VuT0yM4Bl58KFlZ5ZVceObmpnIxECAyQfOpp66MIvuPpNT0QQQ6DJ39U11DCkvdvsyMyPRS-nEt3vpK2HFL9rjchj2WSDVFB4eYu6uCU0aknXsJqEVdWhAb-_4FqrfRDRmGp_JIF/s1600/64609.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZliM7VuT0yM4Bl58KFlZ5ZVceObmpnIxECAyQfOpp66MIvuPpNT0QQQ6DJ39U11DCkvdvsyMyPRS-nEt3vpK2HFL9rjchj2WSDVFB4eYu6uCU0aknXsJqEVdWhAb-_4FqrfRDRmGp_JIF/s320/64609.png" width="274" /></a></div>
DNA structure above. Main attribute of DNA binding proteins is that they have some positively charged part that is attracted to negatively charged phosphate groups which hold DNA together. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdBR1KOgohR1JCy62O7mQiJTtcFiyndsE40L3-EY8oINlWsxIKfOTHA6xGBY1nItKNJm_abgB4sityc5XTbY0cByw6T7njWZkA__zGlWw6-zdBgDJGnB9LVySgFpnGLOD9s3LYh0x3CteR/s1600/300px-Zinc_finger_DNA_complex.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdBR1KOgohR1JCy62O7mQiJTtcFiyndsE40L3-EY8oINlWsxIKfOTHA6xGBY1nItKNJm_abgB4sityc5XTbY0cByw6T7njWZkA__zGlWw6-zdBgDJGnB9LVySgFpnGLOD9s3LYh0x3CteR/s1600/300px-Zinc_finger_DNA_complex.png" /></a></div>
One very common part of proteins that bind to DNA is called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_finger">zinc finger</a> (zinc atoms shown as green spheres in above zinc finger examples). Zinc finger containing proteins can bind with DNA and stimulate or inhibit expression of gene that they influence. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEil0NyoMskU9LLeTK9w1GbsQk0N3sRlP0AycOYXlcrBeWgmIaIospgOAbx-ogAbWyhlwJdhWxtwHS97MH0oCFkwUtiMIpOLzFcgGufnFs_UtSfPn2GPMDtDwqSO-PAKz99NPs6hRJvI6v8C/s1600/250px-Betaine_Arginine.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEil0NyoMskU9LLeTK9w1GbsQk0N3sRlP0AycOYXlcrBeWgmIaIospgOAbx-ogAbWyhlwJdhWxtwHS97MH0oCFkwUtiMIpOLzFcgGufnFs_UtSfPn2GPMDtDwqSO-PAKz99NPs6hRJvI6v8C/s320/250px-Betaine_Arginine.png" width="212" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arginine">Arginine</a> above is amino acid that has many amino groups which tend to have positive charges in body. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protamines">Protamine</a> is arginine rich protein that binds with DNA in sperm and keeps it more compact than DNA in other cell types. As side note very positively charged protamine can neutralize
heparin (heparin looks like like polysaccharide that has many negative oxygen containing groups on sides) which causes coagulation as heparin has one of the largest
density of negatively charged parts for molecule produced by body. <i>This attribute of positively charged molecules in bloodstream may be dangerous if they bind with heparin</i>. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTZIod7sL-UUR4eOcmuutZgac-OfAzHEdh-PCKIFXVfN4IPI1B9khywKIYCGsHTII9BdPieQ18KgfpJD7pI6D2brjelBFs3H5FPKv778xNFEESa9tgcFQigzk5v_JwQvKHBWNm-9o8jCm9/s1600/arginine+protamine.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTZIod7sL-UUR4eOcmuutZgac-OfAzHEdh-PCKIFXVfN4IPI1B9khywKIYCGsHTII9BdPieQ18KgfpJD7pI6D2brjelBFs3H5FPKv778xNFEESa9tgcFQigzk5v_JwQvKHBWNm-9o8jCm9/s640/arginine+protamine.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/107/18/8183.full">Examples</a> of arginine (shortened to R) proportions in different protamine sequences. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnmKJ_TVcXfHnzZrfYrXrRIZf_5o45r0n9g_JbXYZ-_ye57EtV9CoPQH276ncFj5nxF9BRdXtVL35buH7awNAXLAjNFlnrm36zPSwdNLJclvFr_n1dSWEWSSxSmj_ps7fsH-bGS2ezNWoZ/s1600/chro.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnmKJ_TVcXfHnzZrfYrXrRIZf_5o45r0n9g_JbXYZ-_ye57EtV9CoPQH276ncFj5nxF9BRdXtVL35buH7awNAXLAjNFlnrm36zPSwdNLJclvFr_n1dSWEWSSxSmj_ps7fsH-bGS2ezNWoZ/s1600/chro.jpg" /></a></div>
Due to small helical shape of protamine it can package DNA in sperm into ring shaped chromosome which is much smaller than histones that compact DNA in other cells. <br />
<br />
Histones can bind or unbind from DNA depending on which charged modifications get added to histones.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZEykWBqOctU69LQZc53WFh1hLuT17T15iIgx-yPorNgC3GsDEkBiVjzxmBjYpSkL0CEm1OtQNBkqmPWq041aIdxYyk_RxYzkpCbjpoQA6-3O6SE8vr78rFMsUTQjyYPmhVFomBLCcIub9/s1600/220px-Acetyl.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYnR1mYOhvg5HElGLsO1JszCEA5SZk8y8a6zj2PJfgYtXcziFD220vYAhSFOFTAMJ-xGsoTiybrL6sUA2yWSS2DpEAWPMSTpkkMC4G_uY622YXhas9WjwYiHSFvt3C04MKJxDDq-MAtix-/s1600/Acetyl.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYnR1mYOhvg5HElGLsO1JszCEA5SZk8y8a6zj2PJfgYtXcziFD220vYAhSFOFTAMJ-xGsoTiybrL6sUA2yWSS2DpEAWPMSTpkkMC4G_uY622YXhas9WjwYiHSFvt3C04MKJxDDq-MAtix-/s200/Acetyl.svg.png" width="195" /></a></div>
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If histones get <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_acetylation_and_deacetylation">acetylated</a> by getting acetyl group shown above added to them then they seem to repel from DNA due to oxygen of acetyl group and oxygen of phosphate group on DNA repelling each other. Acetyl group gets usually added to positively charged lysine groups that would have been attracted to DNA. <br />
<br />
DNA <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_methylation">methylation</a> involves methyl groups getting added to histones and usually it reduces gene expression as DNA wraps around these histones and is not open for RNA synthesis. Methyl groups have relatively positive charge compared to phosphate groups and this can add some binding capability. In some cases methylation can reduce binding with DNA if methyl groups get added to positively charged amino acids (arginine or lysine) in histones which probably have stronger attraction to DNA than methyl groups and in these cases genes are more likely to get expressed if only these positively charged parts get methylated.<br />
<br />Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-68104171641068309332013-04-21T12:08:00.003-07:002013-04-22T16:34:24.410-07:00Polymer synthesis and their usesPlastics with rings in main branch tend to some stretchiness and these tend to tolerate impacts. Carbon chains wit single bonds are bendy but can become stiff and brittle like glass if they have side branches. Carbon chains with double bonds tend to behave more rubbery. <br />
Having oxygen in carbon chain adds strength under physical pressure but reduces tolerance to acids and sometimes also to UV light. Electronegativity could possibly cause both. Electron on carbons are relatively more attracted to oxygen which may add strength during hits. Hydrogen ions from acids are attracted to oxygen and can break this part up by leaving -OH group in broken tips. Best acid resistance seem to come from carbon only main chain with fluoride attached on sides like in Teflon or other fluorocarbons. Strength comes with ring structures in chains that add some stretchiness. Having carbon chain like in PET makes plastic capable of burning on its own while polymers with oxygen or nitrogen in main chain makes them less combustible or even self extinguishing when away from flame like fire doesn't get enough energy to keep flame going. Almost 100% carbon polymers also self extinguish when they have aromatic rings. Again this could be due to shock absorbing effect as fast plasma atoms can't easily hit out atoms due to collision energy transferred through soft material but with rigid molecular structure pieces could be struck out similar to hitting rubber compared to hitting concrete. Polymer behavior in large scale seems predictable if presumed that they behave like rubbery structure with such shape would behave.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phthalates">Phthalates</a> (R part can be semirandom structure which still leave it a phthalate) are common transparent additives that connect parallel polymer chains for extra durability, softness and flexibility although they can separate from plastics and if eaten they can interfere with hormone levels and fetal development. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_rubber">Natural rubber</a> latex has main cis-polyisoprene as main ingredient. Synthetic rubbers have often similar main chains with mixture of double and single bonds between carbon atoms. Double bonds are almost twice as hard to break as single bonds. Rubbers are usually strengthened with by heating it with sulfur to get sulfur cross-links (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcanization">vulcanization</a>).<br />
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Example of common synthetic rubber <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styrene-butadiene_rubber">styrene-butadiene</a>. About half of car tires are made from some variation of this rubber. Higher styrene (part with carbon ring) proportion creates harder material with less rubber like properties.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoprene">Neoprene</a> is common soft rubber found in wetsuits, wire insulation, hoses and sound muffler. In foamed neoprene like in wetsuits it is made more heat preserving and bouncy by adding nitrogen gas to create many bubbles within rubber. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicone">Silicone</a> polymers have main chain with alternating oxygen and silicon (PDMS has 2 methylgroups on sides). Unlike plastics they often tolerate temperatures of -100 to 250 degree Celsius while several plastics tend to break apart between 100-200 C (although some like aramide tolerate up to 500 C). Silicone lenses implanted after cataract surgery are stable enough to stay in eye for lifetime. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydimethylsiloxane">PDMS</a> is honey like oil that is sometimes used as food additive and doesn't have known serious toxic effects. In shampoos it makes hairs shiny and slippery.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid">Polyacrylic acid</a> is charged polymer belonging to group of polyelectrolytes as every sidechain is charged in water and attracted to water. This makes it good absorber of water and it is used in some diapers. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite">Bakelite</a> was one of the first invented polymer that was used for hard non-conductive parts that tolerate heat from electronics. It is one of the plastics that can't be remolded or reused by heating.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene">Polyethylene</a> (PET) is most commonly found plastic in form of plastic bags and bottles. Main chain can look similar to fatty molecules or paraffin but in PET these chains are cross-linked together so much that bacteria or larger organisms can't digest it. It tolerates strong acidic and alkaline substances. Organic solvents can dissolve it if it isn't cross-linked enough. After igniting it burns independently similarly to many other substances made only from carbon and hydrogen. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybutylene_terephthalate">PBT</a> is nonconductive polymer that can also be used as fibers in toothbrushes but it degrades with UV light. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorosurfactant">Fluorosurfactants</a> are molecules where hydrogen atoms around carbon chains get replace by fluoride and that can give water repelling effect but they also keep dirt from sticking due to overall non-sticky properties. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene">PTFE</a> (brand name Teflon) is one of many fluorosurfactants and like other fluoride containing substances it is very slippery which is used in cooking to avoid sticking and in machines to reduce friction. Strong attraction between C and F due to large electronegativity difference makes them resistant to acids and heat. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyimides">Polyimides</a> are polymers of imide (structure left) which are usually cross-linked together by flexible 4,4'-oxydianiline (structure right). They are durably flexible plastics used in wires that connect laptop screen to motherboard and are bent every time screen is moved. They are relatively heat resistant tolerating over 200 C and are sometimes used in flame retardant clothing in addition to wires that may need to work in hot environment like near hot computer parts or inside chips themselves. One use of needle-like polyimides is in hot factory chimneys filtering out larger dust. It is resistant to weak acids but not to strongly alkaline or acidic substances.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyoxymethylene">Polyoxymethylene</a> (POM) is very stiff and hard plastic up to around 40 C and melts around 170 C depending on polymer structure. It is very relatively slippery compared to rubbery or softer polymers. <br />
It is used in insulation, zippers, aerosol cans, chains, springs and screws in case strength/stiffness of metals is not required.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene">Polystyrene</a> is common rigid and relatively fragile packaging (in soft foamy form or hard cd cover or in plastic utensils) material that dissolves in acetone but is slowly biodegradable.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymethylpentene">Polymethylpentene</a> is transarent plastic with maybe most consistent refractive index for wide range of EM wavelengths which could make it good lens that directs many wavelengths in same directions. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_glass">PMMA</a> (Poly(methyl methacrylate)) is also shortened as acrylic glass. It's one of the hardest polymers used in <b>bullet resistant</b> glass and in windows of submarines reaching 10+ km below surface. During World War it was used in submarine periscopes and plane turret windows. Police cars tend to have glass made from it and so are their transparent riot shields. PMMA can be implanted within body and it is used as artificial lens after people noticed pilots who got eye injuries with PMMA shards during II WW didn't get much immune reactions around PMMA shards. PMMA has also been used for connecting artificial skeletal parts to bones (commonly in hip replacement) although it seems less safe when it is solidified as it can heat to over 80 C during polymerization at surgery and unpolymerized MMA itself is irritant and possible carcinogen. <br />
Bullet resistant glasses usually have several layers of acrylic. If acrylic is used to flatten bullet in one layer and other stretchier polycarbonate layer absorbs energy then it can create one way bullet resistant glass (example <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5HM3y8d0NA">clip</a>) which passes bullet when shot from polycarbonate side but not from PMMA side. Polycarbonate is about as durable as PMMA but can change shape more without cracking but it doesn't stop bullets if they aren't flattened enough.<br />
CD's and DVD's use both PMMA and polycarbonate. Common weakness of PMMA seems to be sensitivity to acids.<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_optical_fiber">Plastic optical fibers</a> often use acrylic and polystyrene as transparent core and some other material around it.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonate">Polycarbonate</a> structure. It is transparent and strong plastic used in plastic bottles in addition to bullet resistant glasses. <br />
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It is produced from bisphenol A and phosgene which can be released if polycarbonate gets hot and/or touches water and it has many effects on hormones and neurotransmitter pathways along with possibly increased risk of cancer so hot water in plastic bottles is probably not good. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramid">Aramid</a> (brand name Kevlar) is soft bullet resistant material which is also found in bike tires. Electrostatic attractions between parallel fibers hold it together (<i>and probably reconnect similarly if strong force pulls them apart while rings are probably small scale stretchy shock absorbers</i>). Aramide was probably used in this <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nQM6zLiSn1E">clip</a> (shot shown around 9th minute) where soft jacket type armor stopped bullet shot at interviewer (founder and CEO of company said workers who make those also get shot as part of job). While aramide vests can look thick and stiff they can also look like usual soft, semitransparent and thin clothing. It doesn't melt and degradation starts from 500 C. It's nonconductive (could build up static electricity) and degrades with UV light, salts and acids. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon_6">Nylon 6</a> is made of caprolactam which has 6 carbons. Polymerization happens in nitrogen atmosphere at 533 K degrees. Durability and softness make it usable for toothbrush hairs, string for musical instruments and non-absorbable surgical sutures. <br />
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Acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene">ABS</a>) is mixture of these 3 monomers that create strong hard plastics that are used in Lego pieces and hard plastic safety helmets. Proportions of monomers can vary widely. Polar nitrile groups bind polymer chains due to electrostatic forces. Styrene gives shiny appearance. Butadiene is rubbery substance and it adds similar bendy strength to ABS. Molding at higher temperature adds gloss and heat resistance but molding at lower temperature adds impact resistance strength. Adding glass fibers can add strength. ABS is common material in 3D printers. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_acetate">Polyvinyl acetate</a> is used in PVA glue as adhesive. <br />
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Structure of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanoacrylate">cyanoacrylate</a> in <b>superglues </b>is similar to acrylic glass but where one methyl group is switched with cyanide group. It polymerizes in presence of -OH group in water so it can be used underwater. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_butyral">Polyvinyl butyral</a> is plastic used in laminated glass in car windshields where it keeps shattered glass shards from separating from glass.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maneb">Maneb</a> is widely toxic polymeric fungicide that is not easily available as it is suspected to be damaging enough to dopamine cells to cause Parkinson's disease. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyacrylonitrile">Polyacrylonitrile</a> is common precursor for carbon fibers. It turns into carbon fiber if heated above 1000 degrees in inert (no oxygen or other reactive gases) atmosphere so carbon could stay solid at that temperature.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylysine">Polylysine</a> is made of essential amino acid lysine. It looks yellow and has mild bitter taste. As polymer it has use as food preservative. It seems to work by electrostatically binding with bacterial outer membrane and breaking it apart. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafion">Nafion</a>
is one semipermeable membrane that can be used in hydrogen fuel cells
as it let's protons and oxygen pass but not oxygen or other negatively
charged particles (fluoride is negatively charged and fluoride tends to
create tightly packed materials (due to being relatively small element) which are good at blocking fluids and
gases out). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_exchange_membrane">Proton exhange membrane</a>
is overall name to polymers that can be used for membranes that let
protons through if under water but not hydrogen, oxygen or negatively
charged particles.<br />
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<b>Medically used polymers</b><br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_glycol">Polyethylene glycol</a> shows diverse effects that can have medical usefulness. It's monomer ethylene glycol itself is poisonous to kidneys if it reaches bloodstream for example by touching wound plus it may form dioxanes that damage brain and other organs and cause cancers in long term unless removed from polymer. On other hand polymer itself is used as laxative by attracting water and through osmosis it could cause water pressure of 10 atmospheres. <b>Expreriments that are not confirmed on humans:</b> In animal testing it seemed to reduce colorectal cancer. If injected it seems to help motor nerves heal after injury in test animals. It seems most effective substance to avoid chemically caused cancers in rats. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextranomer">Dextranomer</a> is made of dextran and it is used to speed up wound closing and to avoid fecal incontinence. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyaminopropyl_biguanide">Polyaminopropyl biguanide</a> is disinfectant for contact lenses, skin and wounds. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policresulen">Policresulen</a> is antiseptic that can stop bleeding.<br />
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<b>Polymeric motors</b><br />
<br />
Several polymers with different conductivities mentioned here including Nafion (from hydrogen cells) can work as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroactive_polymers">polymeric motors</a> that can change shape even with 1 volt current. For example <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_polymer-metal_composite">flat Nafion</a> with conductive gold or platinum particles can use 1-5 volts to change shape. Mechanical force on material can cause proportional voltage difference so they also work as pressure sensors. Voltage of more than <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water#Thermodynamics_of_the_process">1,23</a> volts can break water into explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gas. <br />
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Example of polymers bending with involvements of electrolytes. EAP (electroactive polymers) is general name to polymers that can be used in polymeric motors. Electric fields push ions in to one side of polymer causing them to swell at that side and bend material. There are other ways polymers move like changing electric field alignment in ferroelectric substances or simple piezoelectric response that every material shows but type shown above seemed to be most effective with lowest needed voltage. <br />
<br />
<b>Biodegradable polymers</b><br />
<br />
Polymers that degrade in nature are usually held together by same peptidic bond that connect proteins or resemble polysaccharides so bacteria that can use proteins (all of them) or polysaccharides (whoever digest starch, cellulose and chitin) could possibly break apart these plastics.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4YR0Ua6TUVUoHswKqrovRhN0lG3mJF20q3RasrBaeBqf0CTRAmsMPqyn2r9tY5L33egWUMxHW6NqkUX8DFBpMS7iA_RVjzUTg9KDk-q5fkJ3ZZmJlM2yFnG54iTM7tXSUe_ALVoYP8Ezx/s1600/Polylactides_Formulae_V.1.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4YR0Ua6TUVUoHswKqrovRhN0lG3mJF20q3RasrBaeBqf0CTRAmsMPqyn2r9tY5L33egWUMxHW6NqkUX8DFBpMS7iA_RVjzUTg9KDk-q5fkJ3ZZmJlM2yFnG54iTM7tXSUe_ALVoYP8Ezx/s1600/Polylactides_Formulae_V.1.svg.png" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylactic_acid">Polyactic acid</a> (PLA) is biodegradable polymer that is made of lactic acid and lactide which is basically 2 lactic acid molecule joined together into circle. As PLA degrades it turns back into safe enough lactic acid. PLA is used in medical pins, screws and meshes which break apart in human body within 0,5-2 years depending on type. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgElxQalwE_bnXvQvuHutuUrqxeEa6GqL1sDuVkM1zsPntQ0MvNt3HJ4l6Df1l0l_KzOxAV8UfaosWj2jnX_QUSiSfg16W_4fLdJOEJLjv8_9lKEF4h6JG1h5AdTzAWd7PmhVCBPVwn1miW/s1600/Polyaspartic_acid.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgElxQalwE_bnXvQvuHutuUrqxeEa6GqL1sDuVkM1zsPntQ0MvNt3HJ4l6Df1l0l_KzOxAV8UfaosWj2jnX_QUSiSfg16W_4fLdJOEJLjv8_9lKEF4h6JG1h5AdTzAWd7PmhVCBPVwn1miW/s1600/Polyaspartic_acid.png" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyaspartic_acid">Polyaspartic acid</a> is basically large protein made of repeating aspartic acid isomers which makes it easy to digest for bacteria. It can function as swelling water absorber in diapers and feminine products. Natural proteins have alfa version of these connections. Polymerization seems easy enough to do at home. First aspartic acid gets heated to turn it into succinimide rings. Then NaOH gets added to break those rings partially creating polymer with random distribution of alfa (30%) and beta (70%) linkages.<br />
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<b>"Self-healing" polymers</b><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9czUVwpJgktj5rFCl4mOY7dZ-ZAP2Prx_q2Ls6dWKcGQc-THjDNSC1VdZxAbY7-PzM0OnYWr_hCdawwbRVWDn0n7XKclGSlM3vYfIV2gjoJGycWWUWqaBQnHojjJDKukjW8sBGWLfR4E_/s1600/HomolyticcleavageofPMMA.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9czUVwpJgktj5rFCl4mOY7dZ-ZAP2Prx_q2Ls6dWKcGQc-THjDNSC1VdZxAbY7-PzM0OnYWr_hCdawwbRVWDn0n7XKclGSlM3vYfIV2gjoJGycWWUWqaBQnHojjJDKukjW8sBGWLfR4E_/s1600/HomolyticcleavageofPMMA.gif" /></a></div>
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<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-healing_material">Self healing</a> of simple acrylic glass can happen if broken tips have spare unbound electron (usually shown as dot on illustrations) that could easily grab other unbound electron from other tip. In case it crack it couldn't self heal those cracks but acrylic is one of the plastics that soften with heating and can be remolded again.<br />
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If broken tips have opposite charges then they'd attract and use their unbound electrons to reconnect. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh94R8UwKWnX4__BXw7-yi4YWV00hssvZ_7oBzLQrvnvsLTKhfmQg_dOvi546fLBaJSwhej00jgZP4gs_1cXmjh3exykM03wzmz-jPjDvgzvlne0k3s2MknN9ov5bdVMKyManVCanlH03Jz/s1600/Diels-alder_(1,3-butadiene_-_Ethylene).png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh94R8UwKWnX4__BXw7-yi4YWV00hssvZ_7oBzLQrvnvsLTKhfmQg_dOvi546fLBaJSwhej00jgZP4gs_1cXmjh3exykM03wzmz-jPjDvgzvlne0k3s2MknN9ov5bdVMKyManVCanlH03Jz/s1600/Diels-alder_(1,3-butadiene_-_Ethylene).png" /></a></div>
One common self-healing event is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diels-Alder">Diels-Alder</a> reaction shown above. Those 2 joining parts can be part in already round carbon circle or other structure as long part of it look like parts shown above. Not all atoms in rings need to be carbon but existence of double bonds in this configuration seems to be requirement. <br />
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One example of Diels-Alder reaction creating crosslinks between 2 strands of polymer. Heating it to 80 C for over 2 hours breaks these chemical bonds and makes material softer for rechanging shape before cooling. <br />
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Polymer branches that have sulfur containing tips can connect with other such tips and create sulfur bridges. Sulfur is also common in proteins in cysteine that forms similar bridges and stabilizes proteins in higher temperatures and rubber vulcanization creates similar connections.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Background chemistry</b></span><br />
<br />
<i>Many polymers are
made of monomers that had double bonds but which are not in polymer with
some B group metal catalyst causing polymerization. </i><br />
<i>Double bonds
are attracted to positive charge due to double or triple bonds having 4
or 6 electrons between 2 atoms with relatively short distance between
atoms while electron density in multiple bond is relatively high. By having something
positively charged together with at least double bonded monomers tends
to start joining of these molecules as positively charged B group metals
are attracted mostly to double or triple bonds which have more
negatively charged electrons. At least B group metals tend to have many
electrons that could be easily lost to other atoms (in conduction band)
so they may interact shortly but then separate due to easily lost
electrons and atoms that are left with spare electrons use it to connect with almost any available atom but preferably with atom that also has spare electron. This ease of losing electrons makes B group metals good catalysts that can react many times over with different substances without losing effectiveness. Usually these catalysts are in form of some metal salt where negatively charged additives make metal atom more likely to have positive charge without needing solvent to give metal its charge.</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>Sometimes chemists need<b> uncharged solvents </b>to
not interfere with
chemical reactions based on electric attractions but which still need solvent to move molecules around so they could meet more thoroughly like with
methamphetamine production where charged pseudoephedrine, iodine and
lithium (different substances could work) are mixed in uncharged (but
explosive and unhealthy) benzene or lighter fluid. I've checked many
drug synthesis recipes and organic solvents from slightly charged
alcohols to uncharged benzene and toluene seem needed in every step
where differently charged atoms need to combine. </i><br />
<br />
<b>Electron bond type on stiffness</b><br />
<br />
<br />
Single bond leaves room to flexibility as atoms can swivel more. <br />
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Double bonds add rigidity to plastics, rubbers and also to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid">fatty acids</a> so unsaturated (have double bonds) fatty acid are more rigid. Such atty acids stay at same angle through wide temperature range. Addition of hydrogen saturates fatty chain and helps with bending. If hydrogen atoms around these double bond area are on same side of chain (cis configuration), then molecule gets curve at this place but with trans configuration hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides and double bond area stays straight. This bent shape of cis fatty acid makes them harder to be packed tightly so it takes less heat to keep it fluid so they are likely fluid in body. Trans fatty acids are straight and that makes it easy for them to be tightly together which can increase their melting point higher than body temperature so they could also stay solid inside humans and that makes trans fats less healthy. <br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans_fat">Hydrogenation</a> would add hydrogen onto carbon atoms in double bonds and make them saturated acids which themselves are relatively unhealthy. Hydrogenation can happen in high pressure (~14 atmosphere) and ~140-170 Celsius. <br />
<br />
<b>Peptide bonds</b> <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzivZQ07af5cT98Qqe58ackpTgcxxq1Dm1BBtJEJCHJfPbCOXXhWmq2qiDfwcBmnBSAjJUz5guSRopT7tf7m0PvQLuKrKiOA3uyvDApo4Whw8Wq_dYsGsWWZi2jAIr3ViAV9QdHhud7kUE/s1600/PeptideBond-HiRes.JPEG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzivZQ07af5cT98Qqe58ackpTgcxxq1Dm1BBtJEJCHJfPbCOXXhWmq2qiDfwcBmnBSAjJUz5guSRopT7tf7m0PvQLuKrKiOA3uyvDApo4Whw8Wq_dYsGsWWZi2jAIr3ViAV9QdHhud7kUE/s320/PeptideBond-HiRes.JPEG" width="257" /></a></div>
<i>Probably
most common polymers are proteins which are connected together by
peptide bonds where positively and negatively charged areas connect.
Possible that enzymes that connect molecules have some uncharged amino
acids around it so electric attraction would be fine.</i><br />
<i>Some
chemical reactions need pressure like 10-100 atmospheres. In these cases
weight of people is enough to start chemical reactions by forcing atoms
together. Proteins have varying inner pressure as their uncharged parts
try to stay in middle (where chemical reactions tend to happen) away
from water and charged areas near surface attracted to each other may
tighten together adding pressure to middle of enzyme that probably can't
be calculated with current knowledge.</i><br />
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<i><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8qXNxiHzGALa-wtXfs28Z49FEyIAR_TSDByGE3ldWN3-eidLWqr5PtQMNWaq3Pzn-MYCZ-CcMZDC-u3QEaXOxFNJaa5gxpr7IqGipVGPuEt2GTsNFFkML94c5x-eCgSd6KCE3DLLAfwgT/s1600/180px-N2H2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8qXNxiHzGALa-wtXfs28Z49FEyIAR_TSDByGE3ldWN3-eidLWqr5PtQMNWaq3Pzn-MYCZ-CcMZDC-u3QEaXOxFNJaa5gxpr7IqGipVGPuEt2GTsNFFkML94c5x-eCgSd6KCE3DLLAfwgT/s1600/180px-N2H2.png" /></a></i></div>
<i>Pressure in enzymes could be presumed from biochemical reactions. Possible example of high pressure in proteins would be in reactions where nitrogen becomes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenation">ammonia</a> in bacteria that often live in roots of plants. Industries produce ammonia at 200 atmospheric pressure with iron (available in cells) and high heat (fast or strong collisions could imitate effect of heat). </i><br />
<i>Possible that proteins could achieve that type of pressure in some
parts in them especially if protein is very large with many charged
parts trying to electrostaticly contracts protein tighter together. Also
ATP or some other energetic organic substance is commonly needed for
cells to build larger molecules and when ATP releases phosphate which could give larger molecule sudden jolt that could increase pressure
momentarily even more. Similar high pressure in enzymes applied unevenly could potentially break them apart in proteins that break things apart. </i><br />
<br />
<b>Computer parts made from polymers</b><br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVWc-yGMqNee9LgHiyn3qNUjTfdZesmaRCaduTvJf5FormaXD1bpPgwiGInhawRM7EDYIh_aDgrYk6sINK2KgFH4L9r0QJLbUhSiyt5gbxDLqksqjjyG8KAbBtud37_ZoX76wtVQ3oHQ6L/s1600/Thin-Film-Electronics-ASA-Printed-Electronics-Temperature-Sensor-Display-Transistors-Memory-Flexible.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="155" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVWc-yGMqNee9LgHiyn3qNUjTfdZesmaRCaduTvJf5FormaXD1bpPgwiGInhawRM7EDYIh_aDgrYk6sINK2KgFH4L9r0QJLbUhSiyt5gbxDLqksqjjyG8KAbBtud37_ZoX76wtVQ3oHQ6L/s320/Thin-Film-Electronics-ASA-Printed-Electronics-Temperature-Sensor-Display-Transistors-Memory-Flexible.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
Polymers can be used almost any computer part from screens, (temperature, PH, pressure, electric field, light, infrared, radio wave <i>and probably also radioactivity</i>) sensors, simple CPU's and memory storage devices.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSfBiM6xE_uN1vzS-KX9JfJuCwfPnDU0Zzq0uVmuHVGJsFRM45zELc52kStrK3fNRhtLuDmZAtu1DvAFWunyOilG-pjx9FW46o37aJ-VKWGhVFx765-088xNw9NdcJKORJGHXiL-WynzC_/s1600/110714083436.NL110714---foto_cropped-39-0-0-0-0.resized.200x0.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSfBiM6xE_uN1vzS-KX9JfJuCwfPnDU0Zzq0uVmuHVGJsFRM45zELc52kStrK3fNRhtLuDmZAtu1DvAFWunyOilG-pjx9FW46o37aJ-VKWGhVFx765-088xNw9NdcJKORJGHXiL-WynzC_/s1600/110714083436.NL110714---foto_cropped-39-0-0-0-0.resized.200x0.jpg" /></a></div>
<a href="http://www.elektor.com/news/world-s-first-fully-organic-microprocessor.1884751.lynkx">Above</a> shown polymeric computer (mentioned at latest in 2011) has 8 bit processor with 4000 transistors on plastic film. Processor has 2 layers each 25 micrometers thick. One layer is does arithmetic calculations with 3381 transistors and other layer is memory with 612 transistors for instructions. Semiconductive ingredient was small molecule pentacene. It needs 10-20 volts and works at up to 6 hertz frequency with power consumption of 0,1 milliwatts at 10 volts. While they are maybe weakest computers done recently they have potential for use as disposable cheap addition to packaging and they can do simple math on screens that could be printed on similar material. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Stable memories can be made from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroelectric_polymers">ferroelectric polymers</a> that can be used for that role by preserving electric polarity like ferromagentic substances preserve magnetic pole directions.<br />
Organic computer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroelectric_polymers">memories</a> can be made with flurocarbon type substances. Their structure can look bit like teflon but with fewer fluoride atoms.<br />
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<br />
Example of ferroelectric <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinylidene_fluoride">polyvinylidene fluoride</a>. Fluoride part is the negatively charged part and it has to be below its curie temperature to preserve where charges are directed. This substance can also detect pressures and heat. 1 newton of pressure seems to create charge comparable to charge of ~40 million electrons (6-7 picocoulomb per newton) which at least at the time of that experiment was at least 10 tmes more than other polymers could create. To get this pressure sensitive response its electric polarity had to be first oriented by electric field of 30 000 volts per millimeter of thickness (or 30 volts per micrometer or 0,03 volts per nanometer if polymer sheet was thin enough and electrodes were that close). Thinner ones have been used in some thermal cameras. This polymer is insulating enough to be used in wire insulation. <i>Flowing electrons would probably get captured by fluoride atoms.</i><br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyaniline">Polyaniline</a> is semiconductive polymer. It can change colors depending on oxidation state or by doping with acids or bases.<br />
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It can be in 3 different forms under different names but similar structures. Each of 3 has different appearance and polyaniline is usually mixture of these 3 states. Emeraldine with acid is green and ~10 million times more conductive than without acid. With bases emeraldine looks blue. Leucoemeraldine is white or transparent. Pernigraniline is blue/violet and most oxidized among 3. Electricity can change them from one form to other and change colors with that which can be useful in window coating that can go from transparent to colored. <br />
Industrially polyaniline has advantage of being maybe cheapest conductive polymer and it can be used as color changing acid or base sensor which could be cheaply replaced. Such materials can dissipate static electricity and to some extent block electric fields for which they have been commonly used in electronics to avoid static electricity buildup. They may have uses as polymeric motors. <br />
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Inkjet <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oled">printers</a> have been used to add organic LED light sources on polymers. Printers could potentially be used to print different transistors and conductive materials as well. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZzjDuyI2gnsfHEIt8LH0u6gKgyneNUHSDvBM6gqQ55xt5m9Vl1CdEw8EepxMQxKm_VRtsrtcT6vKNI2N92QAPDLUVP4r0J34b5QicIv8dmsOQZQuXKiwNxcldHQqiyJfpMTyEQdNKJ04S/s1600/200px-Polyphenylene_vinylene.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZzjDuyI2gnsfHEIt8LH0u6gKgyneNUHSDvBM6gqQ55xt5m9Vl1CdEw8EepxMQxKm_VRtsrtcT6vKNI2N92QAPDLUVP4r0J34b5QicIv8dmsOQZQuXKiwNxcldHQqiyJfpMTyEQdNKJ04S/s1600/200px-Polyphenylene_vinylene.png" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly%28p-phenylene_vinylene%29">Polyphenylene vinylene</a> was the first known polymer that could emit light and be used as organic LED. It can work as organic solar cell but it degrades with light and oxygen.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicwsI0Zt-JkJeN2-qaH1SN3XmGLb6aWcdNch8YGzRIcGqGBCpkmcrEwKxI2Xu-odnVLKHlUBd63ID7fy0iLGf1C6pkLglerwiHWNM5YegtFtcHl2cqZdr1lveI1UHygGXikFfzXwlacS0U/s1600/220px-Ir(mppy)3.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicwsI0Zt-JkJeN2-qaH1SN3XmGLb6aWcdNch8YGzRIcGqGBCpkmcrEwKxI2Xu-odnVLKHlUBd63ID7fy0iLGf1C6pkLglerwiHWNM5YegtFtcHl2cqZdr1lveI1UHygGXikFfzXwlacS0U/s1600/220px-Ir(mppy)3.png" /></a></div>
While polymers are relatively inefficient at producing light they can be mixed with almost 100% efficient non-polymeric small molecules that have <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organoiridium_compound">organoiridium compounds</a> like Ir(mppy)<span style="font-size: xx-small;">3</span> above so polymers themselves could be bendy transparent electrodes to main light source.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwdnS0_ElR69DymLmk5TmK52bSIEyafeQRKcOmf9yts4k792LDLBqpvF4G4-1ZKBPX3OKb0j6R5DFJ4BSGHUc0FYVeyp1a95vAH3AUtce9nMtiAqLIfOswiimgz36qXRg12vZKlwkmXpsa/s1600/Polyfluorene.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwdnS0_ElR69DymLmk5TmK52bSIEyafeQRKcOmf9yts4k792LDLBqpvF4G4-1ZKBPX3OKb0j6R5DFJ4BSGHUc0FYVeyp1a95vAH3AUtce9nMtiAqLIfOswiimgz36qXRg12vZKlwkmXpsa/s1600/Polyfluorene.svg.png" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyfluorene">Polyfluorene</a> are conductive polymers that can emit light through entire visible light spectrum although they tend to create green when middle ring get ketone groups.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMI1MkdxbUMQ0WtxUj7DiWw-O3BwmiL5XA8H4IDj5euYFAWhMkhqfRpdoP5W2LTY7BZsYn0TS-W_HpGrXsbfcc8xVVCxJ7sb-ApORgQpTzAVkgA12MnoWjhS2ICeQ_QsaT5LAYTW0vgh89/s1600/630px-Polyfluorene_with_oxadiazole.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="114" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMI1MkdxbUMQ0WtxUj7DiWw-O3BwmiL5XA8H4IDj5euYFAWhMkhqfRpdoP5W2LTY7BZsYn0TS-W_HpGrXsbfcc8xVVCxJ7sb-ApORgQpTzAVkgA12MnoWjhS2ICeQ_QsaT5LAYTW0vgh89/s400/630px-Polyfluorene_with_oxadiazole.png" width="400" /></a></div>
Light frequency goes redder if alkoxy (including ether bonds) get replaced by alcohol groups. It seems wavelength increases towards red as more groups get added that could transfer protons like hydrogen in alcohol group to nitrogen compared to uncharged methane or other carbohydrate which themselves could reduce wavelength and get closer to blue colors. Such polymers need orderly sequence of monomers. Polymer made only from polyfluorene is blue. By adding substances that emit lower energy photons polyfluorene can work as initial light source that stimulates others if they are much closer than wavelength (possibly below 5 nm as doubling distance may weaken transmitted energy <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6rster_resonance_energy_transfer">million</a> times). If those additives absorb photon energy then emit lower energy photon that is common to them. If middle 5 carbon ring in polyfluorene has larger aromatic oxygen containing groups like alkoxyphenyl in position R1 or R2 then it becomes stabler at emitting blue light compared to just carbohydrate groups in these positions. When using polyfluorenes in solar cells their efficiency can be increased in their conjugated (alternating single and multiple bonds along chain) side chains have some electronegative atom in ends. Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-47964564396306971452013-03-04T10:25:00.001-08:002013-03-19T06:54:43.961-07:00About optical computersOptical computers do all or much of their work by using light instead of electron currents. These could be made to work with low energy use and with high speed. Every time electrons get converted to photons or reverse some energy will be lost and these conversion should be ideally as few as possible. <br />
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I tried to explain how interference could be used for computer logic. Boolean logic is simplistic enough to make calculator with vacuum tubes, capacitors or just water flowing through pipes and other physical behaviors can probably be used for computer logic as well. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZeHVjFmslOe1zP8LibG45UZfr3JEAn85pYA_1hVXwsj1_0SurEaMBxcGVfwtFr4mJcVWyA3pZguw-DE4i6Ng20GJrgDw2JSE0Jo4-FUTXtKGgCLEk19R-wi71yH38QCYIiYOmMJJ_iaAQ/s1600/430px-Circular.Polarization.Circularly.Polarized.Light_And.Linearly.Polarized.Light.Comparison.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZeHVjFmslOe1zP8LibG45UZfr3JEAn85pYA_1hVXwsj1_0SurEaMBxcGVfwtFr4mJcVWyA3pZguw-DE4i6Ng20GJrgDw2JSE0Jo4-FUTXtKGgCLEk19R-wi71yH38QCYIiYOmMJJ_iaAQ/s320/430px-Circular.Polarization.Circularly.Polarized.Light_And.Linearly.Polarized.Light.Comparison.svg.png" width="248" /></a></div>
Illustration above shows polarization with arrows which also shows where would photon push electrons in case these arrows point negative charge of photon. This polarization can be considered useful for filtering light as some filters only let certainly polarized light through. Liquid crystal screen can be used to change which polarization is needed to pass but those adjustable filters tend to need intense electric fields which could be in form of intense enough photons. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPM6S1rRyTZbDvNxW4lcmhkJZgCJCoQQg2JK0dkno1oCXWVhYfnDWsTVCC9eQQbJjXypNWC52pFPQRDmKSFVyeAbs_-cVuPl11dh8-2TVOdV747xs25BUoZXXPgj5SBwRuSCShlYym0U_o/s1600/365px-Interference_of_two_waves.svg.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="106" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPM6S1rRyTZbDvNxW4lcmhkJZgCJCoQQg2JK0dkno1oCXWVhYfnDWsTVCC9eQQbJjXypNWC52pFPQRDmKSFVyeAbs_-cVuPl11dh8-2TVOdV747xs25BUoZXXPgj5SBwRuSCShlYym0U_o/s320/365px-Interference_of_two_waves.svg.png" width="320" /></a></div>
If different photon beams overlap then they combine their effects. If they overlap in space (0 or 360 degree phase difference) (<b>constructive interference</b> left) then they can amplify each others electric fields increasing how much they work on electrons and other charged particles or photons. If they are skewed by half a wavelength (180 degree phase difference) then they can cancel (<b>destructive interference</b>) each other out as electrons would be pushed in opposite directions at same place. <br />
Further electric field amplification can be created by slowing as it compresses electric and magnetic fields by about as many times as light got slowed. In case of photonic crystals light could be slowed by repeating transparent materials that have layers with thickness of half the wavelength intended for slowing. <br />
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<b>Data processing</b> <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibo8jbCQM2KonUno5A9uxkelLMtwhID-H0o_VQwqUHxMrO4w1FY2eJ7TmhJknQh088JYF5NNUDOIAIXaTROMzq9LhzZhj8f8wzjDCI16Y6SDN2HI8Dbakqeidz_cH5PzWn_p6wLrBsqM6x/s1600/xge_119_2_193_fig1a.gif" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibo8jbCQM2KonUno5A9uxkelLMtwhID-H0o_VQwqUHxMrO4w1FY2eJ7TmhJknQh088JYF5NNUDOIAIXaTROMzq9LhzZhj8f8wzjDCI16Y6SDN2HI8Dbakqeidz_cH5PzWn_p6wLrBsqM6x/s1600/xge_119_2_193_fig1a.gif" /></a></div>
Some Boolean logic gates and their symbols. Zero usually shows lack of signal and 1 that strong enough signal comes out from logic gate. <br />
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AND
gate could require constructive interference to build up energy to get
signal going (charge maybe phosphorus atom with more
light or get electron moving farther). But phosphorus would glow for long time and it could leave
background noise that could need to be blocked until that area can be
used again. If this AND gate needed electrons it could use detector material from digital cameras to create electrons with another light source and get them moving in wire until they get absorbed. If it gets stronger light signal to push it in one direction with more intensity then it could reach to some far enough detector that reads output and only gets electron if enough photons amplify each other. Another way would be to push electrons in front of other light channels before electrons lose energy by creating light. AND gates could possibly be just weakly transparent filters that need enough photons to be bright enough for next part.<br />
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OR
gate could be any example where 2 beams can reach one output light
channel or detector where one or both or more beams working make output
1. This one can look like Y shaped fiber optic cable that combines inputs from 2 input branches and combines them to one output fiber. If this "logic gate" was entirely plastic like that Y then they could work with speed of light in there with near zero energy and cooling requirements. <br />
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XOR gate could work with use of destructive interference with 2 lasers that are apart by half a wavelength. If only 1 of those laser worked then it could transmit out of output fiber but if they both happen to work then they cancel each others light. <br />
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NOR also with destructive interference if 1 baseline beam works anyway and if any input light switched on they could weaken main beam with interference. Input beams at maybe 50% baseline beam intensity so they wouldn't have enough constructive interference to overcome baseline beam too much and reactivate it. <br />
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XNOR gate could work almost like NOR gate but with such beams that input beams are as strong baseline beam. If one input works then it cancels baseline beam but if both work then they could get beam with close to baseline beam electric field activity. <br />
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NAND
destructive interference if both inputs are on but otherwise signal gets through. Could use strong baseline beam and weak input beams that can cancel baseline beam together. <br />
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NOT
(inverter) gate that use of 2 beams that would cancel each other out if both were working at same time. One baseline beam that always works and 1 input beam that could cancel it.<br />
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Interference type can be regulated by moving mirrors
within fraction of wavelength to switch between constructive and
destructive interference leaving room to "reprogram" logic gate into
other logic gate types or for redirecting beam towards other directions.
Adjustable mirrors also help with testing if interference works with
any mirror alignment or if something is broken. These movable mirrors
could possibly also help with heat expansion if device changes
temperature and size.<br />
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<b>Possible example of optical logic in calculation</b>:<br />
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Full adder for adding together numbers in binary made of 2 XOR, 2 AND and 1 OR gate. S is for smaller number and C for larger one to be carried over. In case of 1+0=1 XOR gate would receive 1 and 0 getting output of 1 and if there was no number to carry over then Cin was 0 allowing second XOR gate to transmit light signal to output S with almost speed of light that got altered with interference on the way. In this case AND gates don't get enough input to output signal on their own.<br />
In binary 1+1=2 is 1+1=10. In this case XOR gates leave 0 as their lights could destructively interfere but these signals combining in AND gate create signal "1" for output channel Cout which could show up as light in fiber for Cout and lack of light in fiber S. <br />
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<b>Data storage</b><br />
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Sort
of light storage for up to minutes can happen with phosphorus when it absorbs light but that
loses signal through few minutes. Phosphorus can also be used to create photons by hitting them with electrons. In case data is stored with electrons then phosphorus could be simpler way of converting it to light. <br />
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Fast volatile type of RAM with light could work if it had many parallel light beams creating patterns that could be read with light detectors but that obviously doesn't work if light is switched off.<br />
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Storage
for years can work like in current non-volatile RAM type memories where strong electric field forces electron into floating gate type area where it
can't leave without strong outside field (including from intense photon)
switching on again. <br />
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<b>Possible future applications</b> <br />
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Optical computer could be chemical
detector that detects and analyses substances with only light without contacting substances. It
saves electricity by not needing electrons plus it can analyze large 3d
volume at same time looking for certain frequencies to know substance
with possibly no need to contact sensors in case terahertz detectors are
good and local heat doesn't confuse too much. Analyzer could be
"library" on light beams each lighting up more if light for it's
frequency shows up due to constructive interference.Terahertz detectors for chemicals could have many parallel beams with slight distance difference (for phase difference) so molecules could move in relation to detector and at least some channel should be able to notice certain wavelength radiate.<br />
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Another weirder and more distant use for optical computers could be creating artificial sentience in case sentience requires suitable electromagnetic radiation patterns in any environment even if it was in air or vacuum. Slowed light could carry signal slowly enough to imitate neural signal speed but that need some solid or very controlled environment (like Bose-Einstein condensate). <br />
As another part in that interference patterns could be used to measure brain activity without contact by measuring phase of reflecting light fast enough. Maybe researchers during some brain surgery with volunteers could find out exact light type that would give patient sense of widened sentience or sense of acceptable added sensory input.<br />
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Optical lattice type unmoving or slowly moving interference patterns could possibly create hovering invisible processors that detect at least metal and like radio waves could go through concrete. These could not go through electric conductors but nonconductors like air, water, vacuum, clothing and glass could be passable. These could be improved like a refined wall penetrating radar but which could maybe have more complex "behavior". As conductors absorb EM radiation they could one day be usable to control or disrupt machinery. Control of organic life is less likely as cells can create strong electricity of their own and radio waves go through animals with little absorption. In warfare they could possibly be used to create zones that are uncomfortable to people (maybe stimulating nerves that cause vomiting etc) and confusing to machines. In case they work it's almost certain that military commanders would want to use devices that create sort of "ghosts" that move with speed of life, can pass many walls and cause damage to opposing side. If beams are concentrated enough then like visible lasers they can reach far with very low energy use and possibly override what people and cameras could see or sense otherwise. <br />
Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-16616039823998245092013-02-24T07:00:00.001-08:002013-02-26T09:46:49.837-08:00Photonic crystals<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonic_crystal">Photonic crystals</a> guide certain wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation that have twice the wavelength as the size of repetitive parts with 2 different refractive indexes in crystal. For example ~650 nm red light can be captured and transmitted in crystals with ~320 nm repeating regions and ~400 nm blue light can be created with ~200 nm structures. These can also be used for larger wavelengths like radio waves or microwaves. Earlier photonic crystals transmitted microwaves as they have wavelength of ~1 mm to 1 meter making it easy to manually stack suitably thick layers. These crystals are basically waveguides like the metallic tunnels that guide microwaves to intended direction and they too transmit mainly certain wavelength that is twice the diameter of tunnel. Photonic crystals are made from 2 different nonconductors or from 1 metal and 1 nonconductor. <br />
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Rainbow colored animals (including birds and insects) usually have structures (made of keratin in vertebrates or chitin in insects/mushrooms) with similar sizes but if light goes through so small openings they tend to diffract in almost every direction and interference combines them into colors that depend at which angle something is viewed.<br />
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If gold particles were added to photonic crystal they could increase its absorption of infrared and visible light by 62% and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23007075">light to electricity</a> conversion increased by 41%. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgB8dyGRpBA4g2XoRWaE7rDj2LUiRfNDXfxV9hg-AXMdydANDeajAi0kWfmsw8U8NUeu7CjHCFa_7d0W6rkxpvogy50Gl6KpXL8Fnhe2XjdWiAJ9zX4Zo7G23h_qoJ4a6jsoXw_DmHQhyVE/s1600/laser.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="193" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgB8dyGRpBA4g2XoRWaE7rDj2LUiRfNDXfxV9hg-AXMdydANDeajAi0kWfmsw8U8NUeu7CjHCFa_7d0W6rkxpvogy50Gl6KpXL8Fnhe2XjdWiAJ9zX4Zo7G23h_qoJ4a6jsoXw_DmHQhyVE/s320/laser.jpg" width="320" /></a> </div>
Above <a href="http://www.theochem.kth.se/research/phot_cryst/Applications.html">illustration</a> shows photonic crystal usable as laser light source. Light is created in region surrounded by white dotted line. By skipping air holes in that region they create "quantum well" (QW above) which can capture photon energy and require certain energy to leave the "well". <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ-Z-GflgDqmdoEhr8wJOzpt_XEECPqE7ds9nc5V76elQUmMN3cIAokCISebxxraV_szc7ngZ3CAYn68zKF0_14_CBFQDQRe_ENxCckmtELS8pK7CWdecrV-5p0WIekqX4fuybLpkk191p/s1600/jung.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="348" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ-Z-GflgDqmdoEhr8wJOzpt_XEECPqE7ds9nc5V76elQUmMN3cIAokCISebxxraV_szc7ngZ3CAYn68zKF0_14_CBFQDQRe_ENxCckmtELS8pK7CWdecrV-5p0WIekqX4fuybLpkk191p/s400/jung.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
Skipping holes in photonic crystals can create waveguides like seen in a and c part. Dark spots show magnetic fields. Apparently having lattice constant (size of repetitive crystal parts)/wavelength=0,26 caused behavior seen in picture a but having that ratio at 0,24 caused Y shaped spreading seen in image c.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvmSv-HOzK8YKfjGs7lwJFCroRKBuqSZWpOpcg4-Oi2T7v2BuIU_q-S6lLx2zt5aR8TjeS3YGKMDVkF61iwXXCHDnGe-9cYDaFatf0vza9b7Gbq5zAYeilVyPfEBcHHEj7QZ8MpvYz_nwH/s1600/photonic+crystal+defects.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="215" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvmSv-HOzK8YKfjGs7lwJFCroRKBuqSZWpOpcg4-Oi2T7v2BuIU_q-S6lLx2zt5aR8TjeS3YGKMDVkF61iwXXCHDnGe-9cYDaFatf0vza9b7Gbq5zAYeilVyPfEBcHHEj7QZ8MpvYz_nwH/s400/photonic+crystal+defects.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
Other <a href="http://www.theochem.kth.se/research/phot_cryst/defect.html">defects</a> that can capture energy from photons can vary from having larger hole or no hole in area intended to capture photon energy.<br />
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Photonic crystal waveguides can <a href="http://www.photonics.com/Article.aspx?AID=45914">slow light</a> and by slowing it becomes more intense (shown with height on illustration) due to more compact size but same energy content.<br />
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This also seems to turn initial infrared laser pulse into visible green light (above) while it is in this compact slowed form. That light compacting is often seen as important part of optical computers as by slowing light it can amplify lights interaction with atoms and electrons. <br />
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Cross section of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonic-crystal_fiber">photonic crystal fiber</a>. Hollow holes have diameter of 4 micrometers. Minimum energy loss seems to be at least 10% (0,37 dB) per kilometer. Manufacturing could start with piece more than cm wide, then after heating it gets stretched, narrowing main piece along with the holes drilled in it. Resulting fiber could be over kilometer long and still preserve parallel holes. Light can travel at least in those air channels. <br />
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Photonic crystals in <a href="http://pages.ief.u-psud.fr/~colombel/Research/PCQC/PCQC.htm">quantum cascade</a> (QC) type lasers can be used for infrared lasers but as limitation it creates light that tries to travel within material parallel to surface and also researchers had to cool it to 10 K. Emitted light left this main photon cascade due to diffraction in holes. Material around holes is chosen so that contrast between refractive indexes would be as large as possible to help with reflecting. Holes could be added with narrow electron or ion beams. As last part titanium and gold were added on this structure so plasmons in them could carry light energy out of hole due to photons already pushing electrons perpendicular to surface with electrons in layer of metal transporting this energy to surface. <br />
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Infrared frequencies between <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3231430/">1-10 THz</a> have practical use in detecting chemicals as molecules have resonance frequencies in that region. Authors used quantum cascade type laser shown in previous illustration with 5 K working temperature. This detectors could use change in frequency or change in refractive indexes to figure out substance (both change frequency). Gaseous molecules could reach inside of these air channels and get stimulated by light but different substances in these holes affect which frequencies they resonate. Due to low temperature they form solid layer within opening that affects contrast between refractive indexes and in turn causes lower emitted frequency. Afterwards they emit some wavelength specific to them and that can be measured by seeing how it travels through prism. Because this frequency has wavelength of 30-300 micrometers it is relatively easy to produce structures with that scale compared to 22 nm scale in some computer parts. In best case it seems to be able to detect single molecule. Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-910755606617405272013-02-19T08:07:00.002-08:002013-02-19T08:07:41.500-08:00Plasmons<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmon">Plasmons</a> are <b>oscillating electrons</b> that are common in plasma (including fire) which can vibrate at the frequency of visible light (~400-700 trillion hertz) although large scale alternating currents in copper wires are <a href="http://pages.uoregon.edu/noeckel/microlasers/">at most</a> few hundred thousand hertz. Plasmons can capture photons forming polariton (generic name to photon together with material that absorbed it).<br />
Plasmon frequency also determines if material reflects photons or transmits them.<b> If plasmon has higher frequency than photon then material reflects photon but if photon has higher frequency than plasmon then photon gets transmitted through material</b>. In case of metal high frequency x-rays and gamma rays get transmitted through metals with increased frequency increasing transmittance distance but visible light and every EM radiation with slower frequency gets reflected. Plasmons in metals and semiconductors have plasmon frequency in UV light range. Certain narrow wavelengths in copper and gold transmit some visible colors as different electrons around atoms have bit different frequencies. It seems to happen because if plasmon has faster frequency than photon then it can respond to photons electric field but if it is slower than photon then it can't disrupt it well. Also in simplified terms plasmon energy is its frequency times Planck constant which is same formula as energy for photon energy. Predictably whichever particle has higher energy is going to somehow dominate over lower energy particle. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmonics">Surface plasmons</a> exist mainly on surfaces of metals that are exposed to dielectric (nonconducting) environment like air or vacuum. They weaken exponentially with increased distance from this surface area. Electron and photons can both create plasmons which fade fast by being absorbed through material or by getting emitted as photons.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_plasmon_polariton">Surface plasmon polaritons</a> are infrared or visible light waves trapped on surface of metal where they have smaller wavelength than in form of photons. Surface plasmons move parallel to surface but with much more compact wave sizes. <br />
Plasmons can be limited to area with size of about <a href="http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Pubs/TechRpts/2012/EECS-2012-62.html">0,007-0,02</a> cubic wavelengths. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_plasmon_resonance"><b>Surface plasmon resonance</b></a> (<b>SPR</b>) refers to plasmon oscillation in response to light. SPR is often considered in certain detectors like in above one. It need consistent laser (same distance and angle), metal for plasmon waves and prism to make different wavelengths pass prism in bit different directions so certain part of detector gets light only from certain wavelength making it easier for detector to see which wavelength did or didn't reflect back. Reflectivity depends on bumps on surface in addition to electric fields. <br />
To create resonance light should reflect from given metal and it needs to be polarized parallel to surface so electrons would be pushed parallel to surface. If polarization is perpendicular to surface then plasmons can't build up resonance energy. <br />
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SPR can be used in molecular biology to test presence of certain antigens like organic toxins or any molecule that binds with antibodies. If antibody binds with antigen it can increase resonance unit (RU) signal with <a href="http://ctcb.bio.ed.ac.uk/biacore.php">1000 RU</a> causing ~0,1 degree difference in angle of reflection and further binding with antibody receptor can increase it further. <br />
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Above images (source <a href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2009/aug/30/plasmonic-laser-puts-the-squeeze-on-light">1</a>, <a href="http://www.sciencenews.org/view/access/id/48718/description/Plasmonic_computing_">2</a>) illustrate plasmonic laser from 2009 that creates light in 5 nm insulating solid transparent gap between nanowire and silver. As one use this could allow use of visible light in much smaller scales than their wavelength.<br />
Even blue light has wavelength that is at least 16 times larger than processors with present time 22 nm architecture but since 2009 it seems light can be compacted to within 5 nm gaps.<br />
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Above nanolaser was created by 2012. These gold using "<a href="http://www.kurzweilai.net/researchers-create-laser-the-size-of-a-virus-particle">bowtie</a>" laser are about as large as a virus with size of ~150 nm. Laser light is produced within 30 nm region and plasmon electrons can have almost any frequency without needing to have wavelength that photons have with same frequency. Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-35560330262920361482013-02-07T09:08:00.004-08:002013-02-12T02:26:36.893-08:00Insulin, IGF and cancer risks <br />
Insulin, IGF (insulin-like growth factor) and other growth factors have tendency to stimulate cell division while somewhat blocking programmed cell death that could remove cancerous cells. This in turn makes high insulin activity more likely to stimulate growth of cancers almost through entire body. This is probably main reason why fattening diets get associated with cancers (usually with intestinal or rectal cancers but many other cancers seem also connected).<br />
Also blocking their receptors is not likely to become good method for curing cancer as too much blockade can kill fast due to type of diabetic coma. If insulin receptors were blocked brain couldn't absorb glucose and that's almost like losing blood flow to brain. Within minute people could pass out into coma and if it persist for 5+ minutes in can lead to permanent brain damage. Probably much easier to just eat less to avoid cancers.<br />
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<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005557/">Type 2</a> diabetes that causes high insulin levels is associated with increased colorectal cancer rate. Also those who keep injecting insulin risk with increased chance of colorectal cancers. Same risks could come from physical inactivity, fat around abdominal organs and obesity as they cause type 2 diabetes type high insulin levels. <br />
Authors didn't find relation between non-diabetic obesity and cancer rates when they did 26 year long study on non-diabetic 86 740 women and 46 146 men. In this case they didn't notice extra colorectal cancer rates and other cancers were not mentioned. Their calorie intakes were considered (they were questioned every 2-4 years) but it seemed unrelated to cancers. Insulin is released with the intake of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. <br />
Difference in diabetic and just fatty diets could be that food increases insulin release temporarily but diabetes keeps free insulin levels constantly high. <br />
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<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2864189/">Comparison</a>
of glargine and insulin effects on cancer. High dose (over 40 U) of
glargine caused almost 3 times more cancers than low dose of glargine
(20-40 U). More specifically 5,26 vs 1,86 cancer cases per 100 patient
years. With high and low insulin doses these 3,1 vs 1,7 cancer cases per
100 patient years. Due to ~13% of glargine users getting high dose and
~46% using high dose of insulin, both drugs tend to have in general
similar chances of causing cancer (~2,4 vs 2,6 cases per 100 patient
years). <br />
<a href="http://endo.endojournals.org/content/152/7/2546.long">High insulin</a> activity can increase risk of breast, prostate, colon and thyroid cancers. <br />
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At least IGF can increase risks of <b>melanoma </b>which causes around 75% of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3069928/">skin cancer</a> deaths. IGF can also bind with insulin receptors along with IGF receptors and like insulin IGF seems to stimulate cell growth, division and inhibit programmed cell death. IGF-1 receptor seems to make cells divide while IGF-2 seems to avoid cancers as mutated IGF-2 receptors could be found in cancers.<br />
High IGF-1 levels could increase cancer rates in <b>prostate, bones, genitalia, bladder, central nervous system, lungs, colon and breasts</b>. IGF BP-3 receptors seem to protect against cancers and lower IGF-1 concentration.<br />
People with growth hormone deficiency (Laron syndrome) seems to protect against cancers but growth is often stunted to childlike height (also those with Laron syndrome where younger during comparison). Caloric restriction in mice reduced IGF in bloodstream by 25% and had some slowing effect of bladder cancer.<br />
IGF-II levels seem higher both in cancers and normal tissues among black women compared to whites. Also breast cancers among black women tend to be faster growing and more likely to kill. <br />
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Some <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3206206/">breast cancers</a> depend on estrogen receptors and can be slowed with estrogen blockers but those breast cancer cells that don't need estrogen seem to depend on IGF receptors and could possibly be slowed with IGF blockers. <br />
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<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3001968/">IGF</a> is commonly also released due to effects of growth hormone. IGF and insulin receptors seem similar to each other in structure and the small proteins that form insulin or IGF receptors can randomly combine together and these hybrid receptor bind with IGF and insulin. Insulin receptor mediates glucose entry to cell and both receptors stimulate cell division. Ingesting IGF can increase risk of <b>liver,colon, esophageal, gastric and pancreatic</b> cancer. <br />
IGF and insulin receptors with many phosphate groups seem to be present in "all" breast cancer case.<br />
<b>IGF receptor blocking drugs</b> are tested for possible chemotherapy use but as they block cell growth they are suspected to also retard growth of children including IGF dependent growth of their brains and heart muscles. Also some cancer cell types may not have IGF receptors. Tumor suppressing IGF receptor types could be solved in water in drank to reach gastrointestinal tumors. Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-22406462021874126222013-02-05T09:18:00.001-08:002013-02-12T02:33:38.124-08:00Bose-Einstein condensate<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate">Bose-Einstein condensate</a> (<b>BEC</b>) is a state of matter that forms with certain elements near absolute zero with identical enough atoms. Temperatures usually have to be so low that movements of elements slow below 1 mm per second compared to usual 0,5 km/s at room temperature. BEC requires thorough vacuum as BEC's produced usually have around 1000 atoms and if they move so slowly then 1 room temperature air molecule can increase their average speed a lot. Special thing about BEC is that it can slow light down to speeds people can run like 25 km/h and it seems to have 0 viscosity. Bose sent this idea about existence of BEC to Einstein around 1924 and temperature needed to create it was reached in 1995 with few thousand rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvins. Using this <a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/kintem.html#c4">calculator</a> it looks like rubidium would have to move move 0,57 mm/s (20 meters per hour). In 1938 helium-4 that got cooled to 2,17 K (about 100 m/s) showed also partial BEC attributes like lack of viscosity and slowed light but less than 10% of gas was considered BEC. <br />
During cooling atoms go to minimal energy they are known to have so far and this allows them to go together more densely in one place. Experiments with lithium seemed to show that they also form dense BEC due to their attractive forces (unlike rubidium atoms that repel each other) but after some maximum number of lithium atoms is reached their attraction can cause sudden collapse somewhat similar to star imploding shortly before supernova explosion. In case of rubidium strong magnetic fields can cause sudden attractive forces that imploded atoms enough to hide them temporarily and then they got energy to fly away from each other.<br />
One way to slow light is to make material transparent to very narrow wavelength while it blocks other wavelengths. <br />
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In 2009 a <a href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2009/dec/15/slowed-light-breaks-record">0,1 mm</a> cloud of sodium in form of BEC seemed to store light for 1,5 seconds.<br />
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From <a href="http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.18/light.html">1999 article</a>. BEC state seems to turn entire gas cloud into single atom or somewhat liquid "laser" with waves similar to radio waves shared by atoms spreading through it. Vacuum has to be at least hundreds of trillions times thinner than atmospheric pressure.<br />
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<a href="http://www.physicscentral.com/explore/action/light-research.cfm">2001</a> article. Sodium BEC seems mostly nontransparent but lasers can affect transparency. Photons are fast due to their zero or near-zero mass but BEC and atoms have mass. If that electromagnetic fluctuation common to light photon gets absorbed with atoms it forms "polariton" that carries electromagnetic activity but is much slower due to extra mass and in case of BEC entire gas cloud can turn into polariton with further increased mass and slowed light speed (<i>additional BEC mass seems to help in this slowing until cloud is too large to stay BEC</i>). Lasers had to be adjusted (weakened) to increase transparency of BEC and proportion of polaritons that were atoms while reducing proportion of photon type polaritons. After atomic polaritons formed they released their light after turning up the laser. Kinda like low light charges them with light and extra energy makes it release again but such light storage happens at low temperatures. <br />
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<b>Possible simplified explanation</b><br />
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<i>BEC could work because while atomic nuclei are moving at ~1 mm/s their electrons will have plenty time to respond to each others aligning electrons so voltage differences between atoms would minimize. As they cool and get closer they also get their electrons closer to each other which could make them react to each other faster increasing conductivity with that. If photons reach conductive enough material they give their electromagnetic fluctuations over to that material. In metal this absorbed photon energy could move fast but in very cold gas with electrons bit more further from each other they could respond by slowly giving their electric field to neighboring atoms. </i><br />
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<i>Consider that almost all elements (except helium) used for making BEC had 1 outer electron to manipulate with laser as they were from 1st periodic table group like lithium, sodium, rubidium and cesium. They get minimal energy they would align their only electron in ways that there would be least pushing between them. If laser forces electrons to one side they could all do it at almost same time like single atom trying to align its electron with outer electric field and they lose this energy as electromagnetic radiation when they fall down to their minimal energy state. </i><br />
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<i>Size of atoms was probably major reason why lithium and rubidium behaved differently. Lithium is relatively smaller and bit more electronegative making it attract electron more due to smaller distance between positive charge of atomic nucleus and atom surface while in rubidium there are many more negative electrons between rubidiums nucleus and surface making it likelier that atoms repel. </i>Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-83019480303014083442013-02-04T07:11:00.002-08:002013-02-04T07:11:36.103-08:00Metal ions in proteins and other organic substances<br />
Many proteins in body use metals for many reasons from molecule transport to chemical reactions and fetal development. Due to their electronegativity metals mixed with water get around +1 or +2 charge that makes them some of the most positively charged elements in body. <br />
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Above structure describes one <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelation">chelation</a> agent EDTA that is used to bind with metals including calcium and remove them from body (overuse of chelation agents can kill due to low calcium). Proteins that have metals have often similar regions with 4-6 nitrogen or oxygen atoms creating negatively charged zone for metal ion.<br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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One of the most common structure that body uses is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyrin">porphyrin</a> structure shown above. It could contain different metals and participate in very different roles. For example in hemoglobin this structure surrounds iron and in chlorophyll it surrounds magnesium. If bound with iron this group gets called <b>heme</b>.<br />
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Iron containing proteins can carry oxygen without reacting with them
chemically. Cytoglobin may be most common as it is present in most
tissues. Hemoglobin is mainly in blood, myoglobin in muscles and
neuroglobin in neurons. Having more of those proteins tends to make
tissues more resistant to lack of oxygen. They seem to have somewhat
fluid way of transporting oxygen by temporarily binding and releasing
them often but most likely attraction is towards heme group that doesn't
have same charged oxygen already there so they tend to even out oxygen levels through body (free dissolved oxygen can easily go through cell walls unlike globin proteins). <br />
At least myoglobin seems to be produced more in case of low oxygen levels like during <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2660263/">exercise</a>. This seems to also apply on <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3095918/">hemoglobin</a>. That's probably reason why living in high altitude or exhausting bodies oxygen stores with activity cause additional hemoglobin and myoglobin so body could store more oxygen. Increase in calcium release seemed to be that maybe main signal substance for muscles that also increases their production. Superficial search (<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7521461">1</a>, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11486249">2</a>) of "calcium" and "muscle growth" seemed to show that blocking calcium also block growth and division of muscle cell and that it is involved in <a href="http://physrev.physiology.org/content/80/3/1215.long">growth of muscles</a> starting from fetal development and extra activity of calcium due to extra muscle activity increase growth of muscle cells. <br />
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Another substance that uses porphyrin + iron is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalase">catalase</a> that converts hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen with 4 such structures in each catalase molecule turning millions of peroxide molecules to water and oxygen each second making it one of the fastest working protein. It's speed makes sense if considering electric charges. Oxygen is most negatively charged part in this cycle and all elements in porphyrin are relatively positive compared to oxygen. <br />
<i>Events that cause it to break could go something like this: In HOOH structure H are more positive atoms and middle oxygen atoms stay negatively charged. In center of catalase is iron with probably +2 charge and it's surrounded by somewhat negatively charged nitrogen. This makes oxygens attracted to metal and hydrogen atoms to nitrogen or carbon groups around metal probably accelerating all atoms involved towards each other. If they get close enough metal becomes most likely source of electrons to oxygen and stronger temporary connections form between iron and oxygen. If free electrons of O are used to connect with Fe then oxygen atoms likely loses electrons that used to connect it with other oxygen atom and also while getting electrons from metals, oxygens will not have connecting electrons but will have similar negative charges that further push them apart. </i><br />
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Some proteins that break up proteins also need metals. For example <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalloprotease">metalloproteases</a> need at least zinc and if EDTA removes metals then these proteins can't break other proteins by possibly similar to catalase mechanism of offering easy electron source that disrupts the usual flow of electrons that keeps molecules together.<br />
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Maybe voltage differences between metals and oxygen or nitrogen is strong enough that when proteins force other molecules against this unusual (for body) voltage difference breaks them up.<br />
<br />Probably largest voltage difference between atoms in
reactive proteins/enzymes is the part where metal is held. This could make it most likely place to send out more energetic
electrons as this place has elements with largest difference in electronegativity. In chlorophyll it seems like likely place for getting free electrons.<br />
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Structure of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> c1. Light photons are polarized in some direction which could also push or pull electrons along this polarization direction. If electrons are already close to moving in some direction then electromagnetic radiation of light can add further push in that direction. Chlorophyll needs water molecules which attract oxygen and its hydrogen atoms may be attracted to negatively charged nitrogen atoms somewhat similar to catalase protein but in case of chlorophyll light is also needed to start chemical reaction. <i>Maybe porphyrin with water creating electron flow could be useful for solar energy. </i><br />
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Chlorophyll molecules are in PSII and PSI and they are not the only ones there (each with around 100 molecules or elements including iron and other charged ions). It seems like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis">1 chlorophyll</a> molecule can turn 1 photon into 1 electron plus this process break up water into oxygen and free protons which in turn are both used to produce energy by plants and animals. These free hydrogen ions produce ATP by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase">ATP synthases</a> and even there electrostatic interactions seem to help explain ATP synthesis. It usually takes around <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22388/">3 H+</a> flowing through ATP synthase to produce 1 ATP from ADP by adding extra phosphate groups.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate">Phosphate</a> groups usually have negative charges unless they get neutralized with 3 hydrogen atoms. ATP has energy because its 3 phosphate groups in row have strong repelling force pushing away from each other but in ATP synthase they manage to get close enough for connecting. <i>It could possibly happen because ADP gets in, hydrogen ions neutralize one of the phosphate groups so they would not try to repel. Possible that added hydrogen on phosphate is attracted to some still charged phosphate with such strength that it bounces of -OH from one phosphate which could grab some free H+ to become water and connect 3rd phosphate group to ADP turning it to ATP. </i><br />Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-67838621304966530752013-02-04T03:17:00.000-08:002013-02-04T03:17:38.773-08:00Emulsifiers<br />
Emulsifiers are substances that can mix oil and water by being one large molecule that has nonpolar (only carbon and hydrogen like most of fat molecules) parts for dissolving fats + other non-polar substances and polar parts (basically other elements besides carbon and hydrogen) to dissolve water, metals and charged organic substances. <br />
In food industry these molecules are used to avoid fat and water separating but bodies use similar molecules to keep fats dissolved in water and to avoid waterproof oil droplets from forming in blood vessels. <br />
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Animal and plant cells many brownish-yellowish <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_lecithin">lecithin</a> type molecules and above substance is one such example. It has long areas that bind preferably to fats and somewhat long area in black and red that binds polar substances. Substances of this class are used in food as natural emulsifiers.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap">Soap</a> is also one type of emulsifier with typical long non-polar area together with charged very small area which demonstrates how little of it has to be charged to help dissolve charged particles like dust.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_stearoyl_lactylate">Sodium stearoyl lactylate</a> is example of emulsifier approved for use in food. <br />
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Bile acids illustrated above. One of the roles for bile is to dissolve fat in digestive tract so it wouldn't try to float on top. Emulsifiers in bile are produced from cholesterol with charged parts usually at opposite ends of molecule. One common molecule that is added to cholesterol by body is taurine that is common in energy drinks. Emulsifiers in bile are toxic to body and one <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9214446">study</a> mentioned that starting from 10 micro-moles of some bile acid per liter started to show some minor damage to biliary cells from biliary tract themselves although large scale damage was not seen even with 5 times that concentration. More hydrophobic ones seemed more damaging. <br />
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Emulsifier are also potentially toxic by dissolving cell
membranes as their non-polar part tries to be in cell membranes while
polar area is more attracted to water outside membrane which combined with thermal motion and bumping together with other molecules can pry cell membranes open. <br />
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One the other hand huge number of proteins seem mainly safe although they have some emulsifier role. For example every receptor on surface of cell has non-polar parts that go through membranes and polar parts that stay outside membrane. Probably every protein has enough differently charged amino acids to turn entire protein into emulsifier. If body didn't have emulsifiers its fat could float up to maybe brain which sounds deadly but i don't know any health problem causing that as body has enough emulsifiers to avoid it and even if some mutation caused such oil layering then they wouldn't be likely to survive in fetal development to reach live birth. <br />
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In bloodstream <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipoprotein">lipoproteins</a> are freely moving partially water soluble proteins that carry around fat molecules. Some of them are connected to longevity. In general lipoproteins carry fats and cholesterol between liver and body tissues (some move them out of liver while other lipoproteins carry fats back to liver). Low density lipoproteins (<b>LDL</b>) carries cholesterol from liver to other tissues and it is sometimes called "bad cholesterol" lipoprotein (although "bad" and "good" is misleading as cholesterol is same but direction of transport between liver-body determines these "good-bad" labels). "Good cholesterol" lipoproteins are also called high density lipoproteins (<b>HDL</b>) as they are smaller than LDL (diameter difference is ~2-5 fold). HDL seem helpful because they carry cholesterol from body to liver and in general people that for some reason have relatively more HDL than other people tend to have less cardiovascular diseases.Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-6233307608689088982013-01-02T06:21:00.001-08:002013-01-12T07:31:44.669-08:00Ion channel selectivity to ions with selectivity filters and other structures<br />
Ion channels like proton (H+), sodium, potassium, calcium and chlorine channels let ions through cell membranes selectively by having narrow point in the tunnel that can only let through ions (or ion-water complexes) of certain size and charge. <b>Charge selectivity </b>depends on electrostatic attraction or repulsion depending on which amino acids are inside ion channel. Much of ion channel proteins is made of helical amino acid chains (alpha-helix) and these have tendency to align positive and negative charges consistently through helix (negative parts aimed at one side of cell membrane and positive parts to other parts).<br />
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<a href="http://www.usermeds.com/medications/amino-acids">Chart</a> of amino acids. Pink areas are parts that connect amino acids together in proteins/peptides and other parts determine which charge amino acid has in proteins. "Polar basic" amino acids usually have positive charge while "polar acidic" amino acids have negative charge but collisions with reactive elements can have less predictable effect on charges. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_channel#Voltage-gated">Voltage sensitivity</a> can be achieved with positively charged amino acids through membranes. Above illustration is about sodium channel but many ion channels have similar 4 repeating groups. Those 4 repeating groups form 1 pore through cell membrane that is about 0,3-0,5 nanometers wide (radius of sodium is about <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_radius">0,18 nm</a>). 4th helix in all of these groups detect membrane voltage by being attracted to more negative side of membrane and with its pull it closes or opens depending on direction of charges. During resting phase cell is more negative inside and during electric impulse inside becomes more positive than outside. Larger voltage difference pulls-pushes charged parts with greater mechanical force. Other voltage gated ion channels have likely similar mechanisms involved but in others both charges could be in use as voltage detectors. <br />
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Size selectivity can depend on size like in case of relatively tiny sodium channel letting small sodium ion through but not larger potassium or calcium. <a href="http://www.proteopedia.org/wiki/index.php/Potassium_Channel">Potassium channels</a> have different mechanisms as they don't let smaller sodium through. Ions like sodium and potassium both attract water molecules and this group of atoms can behave like larger particle. In potassium channel larger pore reaches water around ion and removes some of it but can't do it for water around smaller sodium. Suspected mechanisms include oxygens in C=O groups stabilizing potassium to stay in channel while sodium wouldn't be stabilized and is unlikely to pass narrow tunnel (potassium channels have about 1/10 000 chance of letting sodium through instead of potassium). As channel could fit few potassium atoms it is also possible that they repulse each others and push each other out of the channel giving it maximum ion flow of up to 100 million potassium ions per second (in neurons opening for about 1 millisecond). One additional possible factor is that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helix">helical proteins</a> have charged areas in predictable areas. In loops of helices oxygens are on the side towards C terminus of protein and NH are towards N terminus. <i>This creates repeating rows of H, N and O that could attract positive ions in that sequence as electronegativity determines which atoms gets what charge and after that electrostatic interactions start to work</i> <i>on ions</i>. Voltage sensing in potassium channels is controlled by charged glutamine acids and lysines which attract to side of cell suitable for their charge and distort potassium channel in process. Common potassium channels on neurons open only if inside of cell becomes positively charged. <br />
<br />
Sodium channel pore parts have mainly negatively charged
amino acids and mutations that reduce negative charge there slow the
flow of sodium through the channel. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1313551?dopt=Abstract">Replacing</a> weakly positive lysine (<i>this
amino acid could behave like negative charge to calcium due to
electronegativity of hydrogen and nitrogen making them pull electrons
from calcium</i>) or uncharged alanine with glutamine acid make sodium channel behave more like calcium channel. <br />
<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12649487">Chlorine channel</a>
in E.coli has 3 binding sites for chlorine atoms. At least outermost of
these sites can attract carboxylic group from glutamine acid and block the
ion channel.<br />
<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8099908?dopt=Abstract"></a><br />
<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8099908?dopt=Abstract">Calcium channel</a> can let sodium through more easily if negatively charged glutamine acids in certain locations (one of 3 seems enough) gets replaced by uncharged glutamine or alanine. At least 3 glutamine acids line inside of calcium channels and seem to participate in selectively letting positive ions through. <br />
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<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3237871/">Proton channels</a> are so selective to H+ ions that in that study authors didn't detect other ions getting through it. When they replaced aspartic acid with similarly charged glutamic acid it stayed selective to H+ but when Asp was replaced with uncharged amino acid the channel stopped conducting ions or was letting selectively negative ions through.<br />
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Ion channels tend to be covered with sugar type molecules (<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10501828">glycosylated</a>) and amount of glycosylation influences sensitivity to voltage.<br />
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<i>Possible reason why channels need those could be because sugary substances like syrups and starch create viscous goo that slows down flow of fluid. Even mucus proteins seem to get their gooey consistency from glucose type additives on it's protein chain. </i><br />
<i>For proteins this slowdown means that charged particles don't fly by so fast and leave more time for their electric charges to pull-push other charges around. </i><br />
<a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/kintem.html#c4">Calculator</a> for finding how fast is molecule or atom with chosen mass on chosen temperature. <i>At body temperature sodium have average speed of 470 m/s (1700 km/h). Water is about 10% faster than sodium. Water freezes if its molecules are slower than 502 m/s at 0 C and boil at 587 m/s with electrostatic attractions in form of hydrogen bonds keeping ice or liquid water together at these speeds. Overall water and ions move about 1 m/s (~3 km/h) per each degree C. Calcium and potassium are have speeds of around 350 m/s or 1290 km/h. At such sometimes supersonic speeds ions don't leave each other much time to react to each others charges. In liquid water particles are still fast but they keep attracting each others and also collide often which slows average observable speed to what can be seen with color diffusing through water. By adding slimy consistency particles slow down even further and leave electric attractors or repulsors in proteins or artificial nano-devices more time to push-pull ions in predictable way. </i><br />
<br />Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-3440881893711333202012-12-23T07:57:00.006-08:002012-12-25T08:41:45.170-08:00Bits about slimeIn nature slime is mostly composed of fiber like proteins that are often covered by many glucose groups. Common type of mucus proteins in mammals is <b>mucin </b>and this is also present in <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3610597">fish slime</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucin">Mucins</a> can have molecular mass of 1-10 million hydrogen atoms and in addition to being long fibers they also form many sulfur "bridges" between cysteine parts that connect random parts of fibers making it possible to connect several different mucin molecules with sulfur. Having glycose molecules attached makes mucin and other proteins likelier to attract water and avoid degradation by proteases. <br />
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One possible use for slime could be in making strong strands although as proteins they probably degrade if bacteria and humidity could touch it. Hagfishes produce lots of slime for self-defense (as shown in Hammonds Miracles of Nature 3 <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=ZzjVshM-TK0#t=1475s">scene</a>). After drying it turns into strong fiber close to the strength of spider silk although with less complex structure.<br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate#Secretions">Prostate</a> secretes some proteins that break up proteins making entire mixture more fluid. For example <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate-specific_antigen">PSA</a> (prostate-specific antigen) breaks up proteins that kept semen more solid and liquify it for ejaculating. <br />
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Slime produced by any body part is likely to smell "fishy" as they share exactly same odor molecule. One receptor that releases slime is acetylcholine and it eventually breaks down to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimethylamine">trimethylamine</a> which smells fishy and this could be felt in the mucus/slime of nose, mouth, vagina, penis (due to slime part of semen) and fishes. <br />
<br />Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-6535500346545788062012-11-07T07:20:00.002-08:002012-11-07T07:20:42.842-08:00Magnetism and electron configurationIn short atoms and molecules are repelled by magnets (diamagnetic) if they have no unpaired electrons (only electrons with 2 different spins in orbitals) but are somewhat attracted to magnets (paramagnetic) when they have at least 1 unpaired (electron with 1 spin in orbital) electron in their outermost electron layer. Diamagnetism is weakest form of magnetism and due to this weakness it shows up usually when material has no unpaired electron. Also core electrons deeper in atom contribute to diamagnetism due to aligning with outside magnetism and causing internal magnetic field that pushes away from outside magnetic field. Diamagnetic response is believed to have similar mechanism to larger scale magnetic responses as outside magnetic field that can move electrons in material cause magnetic field in that material (superconductor, ring of wire, benzene ring or just atom) that tries to repel outside magnetic field. <br />
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Some of the more stronger room temperature diamagnets are purely carbon compounds like graphene, pyrolytic carbon and diamonds. Carbon has connection to 4 other atoms and in these materials all 4 are paired making all carbon atom electrons diamagnetic. <br />
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Water is weakly diamagnetic (superconductor are about <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamagnetism">100 000 times</a> more diamagnetic than water) and its stream can be pushed few millimeters away from strong magnet (<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7b-w0oWttN0">clip</a>). Another more sensitive way to test it is to put water container on floating vessel and slowly push it by holding magnet near water (<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jyqOTJOJSoU&feature=player_detailpage#t=205s">clip</a>). As animals are mostly water they can be floated above strong enough magnets. Frogs may float at around 10 tesla (<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_178827&feature=iv&src_vid=jyqOTJOJSoU&v=A1vyB-O5i6E">clip</a>). Humans have been tested in at least <a href="http://www.imrser.org/PDF/Kangarlu.Concepts.Mag%20Res.pdf">7 tesla</a> MRIs and while they didn't float they had some additional side effects like flashes after changing direction of magnetic field. These flashes were suspected to be caused by diamagnetic responses in parts of retinal rod cells that realign themselves and by pressing against each other they may activate each others. Rhodopsin is the light sensitive protein in rod cells and at least these proteins are also diamagnetic.<br />
Copper is one of the few diamagnetic metals (<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E97CYWlALEs">clip</a>) and copper pipes can slow down strong magnets falling through them. <br />
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Main difference between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetism">ferromagnets</a>
and paramagnets is that ferromagnets don't need outside magnetic field
to become and stay magnetic. Both of these arise from unpaired electron
but crystal structure of ferromagnets keeps them from losing magnetism
due to heat movements that remove magnetism from paramagnetic materials with random movements. Permanent magnets use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetocrystalline_anisotropy">crystal structure</a> that are magnetic in certain directions while resisting alignments in other directions. In production of permanent magnets all these crystals get aligned in one direction so entire material would spontaneously magnetize in same direction with enough stability to stay that way below curie temperatures. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Periodic_Table_with_unpaired_electrons.svg&page=1">Table</a> showing unpaired electrons for single ions. Single hydrogen atom is purely paramagnetic and attracted to magnets but it becomes diamagnetic after becoming hydrogen molecule with all electrons paired. Transition metals have unfilled d orbitals that make them paramagnetic or ferromagnetic. Electron are in increasingly more diamagnetic configurations in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetochemistry">lower rows</a> of transition metals and most famous strong magnets use elements from 1st row of transition metals. <br />
<br />
Electron pairing is usually shown with single or 2 opposite oriented arrows. Transition metals usually have electron orbitals with same energies (degenerate orbitals) and electrons can move freely as gas in transition metals between orbitals. Magnetism can arise in combination with other element. According to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_field_theory">crystal field theory</a> electrons stop having equal energy if other element has electrostatic effect on metal atom by pulling or pushing electrons to 1 side of atom.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuIfFvjtM-B1rPXvtAROUCe4firxatC6EHvk97NR_rJnmaqtnPDnVXCqIhFwiVkBz7ZBoC-Oa9X1zm8U_x7uiLUGLfHX0iNtdcguDeT8ieNTpX3qg4rB2JMPYpHAycX4oTSugBqZnba9nN/s1600/CFT_-_High_Spin_Splitting_Diagram_2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="128" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuIfFvjtM-B1rPXvtAROUCe4firxatC6EHvk97NR_rJnmaqtnPDnVXCqIhFwiVkBz7ZBoC-Oa9X1zm8U_x7uiLUGLfHX0iNtdcguDeT8ieNTpX3qg4rB2JMPYpHAycX4oTSugBqZnba9nN/s320/CFT_-_High_Spin_Splitting_Diagram_2.png" width="320" /></a></div>
2 rows show orbitals on side of metal closer to and further from other element that had electrostatic effect. Electrons closer to neighboring atom gets some extra energy from electrostatic interaction and if energy difference between orbitals is small then electrons can occupy them singly with high spin electrons (arrow up).<br />
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If resulting interaction between atoms makes some orbitals harder to access so it would take less energy to combine with other electron on same orbital then electrons tend to pair up (low-spin) and not go on new orbital unless all single electrons are paired.Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-36052704593076892602012-10-28T06:26:00.002-07:002012-10-28T06:26:50.247-07:00Electronegativity and reactivity of molecules<br />
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In general molecules are more stable if there is large difference between electronegativities of their atoms but less stable and more energetically reacting if they are made of atoms with similar electronegativites (<b>EN</b>) excluding those elements with 4 free electrons like carbon that can form strong cubical crystal structure.<br />
For example most metals react with oxygen when they could come in contact with that. Also pure sodium and other alkali metals start burning in water but they lose reactivity after combining with chlorine or other element from opposite side of periodic table. While nitrogen doesn't react easily with organic materials it can react in contact with lithium or magnesium. EN difference of 1,5 or more is usually enough to start energetic (often flaming) chemical reaction without any need to add heat but with smaller differences heat or catalyst are needed like between carbon and oxygen.<br />
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Energy releasing metabolism and burning usually create molecules with
larger difference of EN between its atoms than before. For example fats
and sugars often have mainly carbon and hydrogen connected to each
other which have 0,35 difference in EN but after turning them into CO2
(0,89) and water (1,2 difference) this difference grows and resulting
molecules need much energy (heat or energetic electric current) to break
those up.<br />
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Precious metals in middle columns are
relatively nonreactive or resistant to most acids, oxygen and other
reactive substances compared to other metals. Among the most stable metals are metals with EN at least 2,2 (or more) like gold and those with less EN can rust like silver but others between like Mo usually need heat to start combining with oxygen without visibly rusting in room temperature air.<br />
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Many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_sensors">infrared sensors</a> use unstable molecules that create electron flow with even less energy than visible light provides. These are often cooled to 60-100 degrees above absolute zero to avoid detectors from blinding itself by creating electron currents due to room temperature and cooling is commonly needed to see room temperature heat. At the same time these same sensors without cooling are usually only useful for detecting temperatures that are hundreds of degrees above room temperature. As example <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead%28II%29_selenide">PbSe</a> has elements with EN differences of 0,2 and can detect infrared with 5-6 micrometer wavelength. Heat from human body is about <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared">10 micrometer</a> infrared radiation. <br />
One of the most
sensitive infrared sensor materials is mixture of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HgCdTe">Hg, Te and Cd</a> which can detect almost 2-3 times less energetic infrared radiation than PbSe and it has about 2 times smaller difference in EN. Due to sensitivity HgTeCd has to be about 77 degrees above absolute zero to detect weaker infrared wavelength (up to ~12 micrometer wavelength for this mixture). <br />
<br />Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-65869875606302628622012-10-18T08:54:00.000-07:002012-10-18T08:54:35.434-07:00Few comments about thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP5aWArox3P-AcV93VL_mRmrycLh4FTJ66QdYp6utOvNwO6KFquACVs8JqGQkh5VxLZ58fbIti1qazOlPioo0HdsecosQHwyfQejzd5k4Rlg_ghS8avOzTOOiKUS9HSMt6tl5lb4xXcO0m/s1600/346px-Thiamin.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="185" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP5aWArox3P-AcV93VL_mRmrycLh4FTJ66QdYp6utOvNwO6KFquACVs8JqGQkh5VxLZ58fbIti1qazOlPioo0HdsecosQHwyfQejzd5k4Rlg_ghS8avOzTOOiKUS9HSMt6tl5lb4xXcO0m/s320/346px-Thiamin.svg.png" width="320" /></a></div>
Awareness about thiamine/vitamin B1 (other vitamin B types can run out together with B1) is maybe most important to those who use drugs that influence GABA and acetylcholine levels. GABA influencing drugs include ethanol, GHB and almost all sedatives like benzodiazepines and barbiturates. Acetylcholine is needed to move, remember stuff and to keep many glands working so most drugs that cause dryness in mouth, skin, mucus membranes and eyes probably block acetylcholine activity.<br />
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<a href="http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-2/134-142.htm"></a><br />
<a href="http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-2/134-142.htm">Thiamine</a> is needed for at least 3 enzymes that produce energy from carbohydrates. It usually becomes effective for proteins after it gets 2 phosphate groups added to it. Alcohol stops thiamine absorption from stomach and also slows its activation by slower addition of phosphate groups (that last reaction is slowed because it needs magnesium and ethanol also lowers magnesium levels). While all cells seem to need it, heart and neurons are most sensitive. Serious lack of B1 can cause coma leading to death or deadly heart failure. It is also needed to produce GABA, acetylcholine and building materials to proteins, myelin and DNA plus many other substances. Usually thiamine levels become low if there are problems with absorbing it from intestines due to alcohol and drugs or due to health problems like chronic diarrhea, vomiting, stomach surgery or excessive urination with diuretics. Thiamine requirements are about 0,33 mg for each 1000 kcal of nutrients eaten. Meat is one main source of thiamine like also whole grains and brown rice. White rice on other hand cause lack of thiamine which is often called beriberi. Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome is common name for this deficiency if caused by chronic alcoholism. <br />
Common symptoms of thiamine deficiency: weakness, apathy, faster heart rate, weaker reflexes, unwanted eye movements, trouble breathing, possibly fluid in lungs related to heart problems, edema of lower legs and droopy eyelids. In case of Korsakoff syndrome (more extreme deficiency) it can cause problems with remembering past, learning new memories and may lead to memories of events that didn't happen (confabulation). Alcoholic delirium and brain damage are likely to come from thiamine deficiency. These last memory problems are somewhat common if brain is very low on acetylcholine. <br /><br />
Un-cited personal part: i recently noticed that almost all the unwanted side effects my sedative (pregabalin) causes overlapped with thiamine deficiency. I've experienced almost all previously mentioned temporary symptoms with that except serious memory problems. Pregabalin blocks calcium channels and it has mostly weak effect on all neurotransmitters (each is released after calcium triggers release). During minor withdrawal phase ~12 after dosing i often notice weird weakness and changes in posture with very foggy thinking with runny nose. Maybe it was because GABA and acetylcholine were being released too fast after calcium channel normalized and ran low so thiamine was diverted to producing those neurotransmitters and after awhile also run low causing deficiency symptoms. While inside cells neurotransmitters should preserve well but after releasing they get broken up often in split second. For example acetylcholine activates muscles controlled by willpower and this effect on muscles disappears fast because it gets broken up fast outside cells by acetylcholinesterase (each enzyme molecule breaking about <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcholinesterase">25 000</a> acetylcholine molecules per second). Acetylcholine is involved in nose mucus gland activation so anything causing that could cause problems with thiamine reserves. After noticing that it could explain why these outwardly visible symptoms happened i almost quit pregabalin overnight after taking it ~300 mg daily for over 3 years and got rid of these symptoms (surprising lack of withdrawals after 24 hour pause). I suspect most antipsychotics and sedatives could cause this effect on small scale but ethanol is still the most obvious cause for thiamine deficiency with worst magnitude that i know about. One nonacademic <a href="http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/ART02760/vitamin-b1">source</a> listed diuretics, nicotine (binding with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors) and barbiturates (GABA receptor blockers) as substances that can adversely affect thiamine levels.Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-41836879633495432062012-10-16T07:27:00.003-07:002012-10-16T07:27:48.741-07:00Floating gate transistors<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_gate">Floating gate</a> MOSFET transistors use relatively high voltage to force few electrons into "floating gate" that is surrounded by non-conductive material like glass. Such memory storage can preserve data for many years without any electricity source and these floating gates are common in memory cards and Flash memory sticks or other chip shaped storages. While good at keeping data for long time they are slow at writing as capacitors have to charge up around 5-12 volt charge to push electrons there and later similar voltage is needed to push that electron out of floating gate. Fast computer memories like DRAM or SRAM read-write fast using about 1-1,5 volts but they lose data fast and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_RAM">DRAM</a> has to rewrite its contents several times each second. These DRAM and other unstabler RAM memories use capacitors to hold charge but they leak their charge and this leaking happens faster with smaller capacitors so future RAMs may need to rewrite increasingly faster. <br />
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Floating gates are filled with the help of control gate with varying charge that can pull or push electron to desired direction depending on if it used for writing, reading or erasing (last 2 are similar at first). Like other static electricity using memories that use electrons they lose their contents every time they are read because electrons get pushed out towards sensor and if data was detected in floating gate then it is usually automatically rewritten.<br />
<br />Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-85980472381510056112012-10-10T08:43:00.001-07:002012-10-17T07:20:56.233-07:00Electronegativity related to acids<br />
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Acids, similarly to other chemical reactions, tend to connect atoms that have largest difference between their electronegativities (<b>EN</b>). For example mixing NaOH and HCl in water creates NaCl and extra water. As strong acid HCl breaks up (disassociates) completely in water forming hydrogen and chlorine ions so probably all atoms in them combine into salt or water. <br />
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<b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_acid">Strong acids</a></b> like HCl, HI and HBr disassociate completely creating about same amount of hydrogen ions as there were strong acid molecules added to water. All these 3 simpler examples are pairs of atoms that have smaller difference in EN than H and O so if mixed with water then atoms in these acids tend to combine with water molecules leaving no intact acid molecule. <br />
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<b>Weak acid</b> like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetic_acid">acetic acid</a> in vinegar don't disassociate completely. Amount of hydrogen ions in vinegar is about 0,4% of the number of acetic acid molecules. This may be due to oxygen atoms so close together to region that loses hydrogen (-OH) like in other carboxylic acids. If hydrogen is released it would be attracted back to oxygen atoms.<br />
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Citric acid above. Many weak acids have such part with carbon connected to 2 oxygen atoms. Weak acids have central atoms with with more electronegativity than hydrogen. <br />
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<b>Superacids</b> can be over million time more acidic than strong acids. One consistent part of their structure is having many electronegative atoms outside connected to one or few atoms in middle which are less electronegative than hydrogen. Some superbases have opposite relation as they may have electronegative atom surrounded by less electronegative elements. <br />
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For example <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoroantimonic_acid">HSbF6</a> is the strongest known superacid over trillion times more acidic than sulfuric acid. Hydrogen ion is thought to keep moving between fluorine atoms due to very weak connections with main molecule so they are easily released into the mix. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triflic_acid">Triflic acid</a>. <br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carborane_superacid">Carborane</a>. Green=chlorine, pink=boron, black=carbon and white is hydrogen. <br />
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Target atoms of acids could be predicted to some extent if EN is
considered. Many organic molecules like starch and cellulose have ether
bonds where oxygen atom is between 2 carbon atoms. EN difference between
C and O is smaller than between H and O so in acidic mix these ether
bonds break up leaving -OH groups to both carbons that used be connected
with same oxygen atoms. <br />
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<b>EN related to acid resistance</b><br />
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Hydrofluoric acid doesn't corrode some plastics, gold or silver but it does dissolve ceramics (ingredients include Al and Ca ), glass, iron, nickel, titanium and most other materials. While HF reacts with copper it doesn't react with nickel and many other elements with electronegativity over 1,9 but things are fuzzier around this 1,9 region. Elements with EN closer to EN of fluorine are usually more fluorine resistant. <br />
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HF can be safe(ish)ly held in polyethylene (structure above) bottle while it could dissolve glass. <br />
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Other materials that can tolerate HF are Teflon (left) and neoprene (common synthetic rubber) to right.Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-26892710246260829652012-10-04T06:19:00.004-07:002012-10-04T06:20:18.305-07:00Relation between energy flow and electronegativity<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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In general materials are more conductive if they are made of same element so elements with same electronegativity are connected but non-conductive if electron current would have to switch from one element to other many times on the way. Also if they conduct electricity then they are probably good conductors of heat like metals. There are some exceptions as diamonds don't conduct electricity well (about 100 times better than glass) while being fast at conducing heat but this may be due to bit chaotic looking crystal structure (lack of straight pathways to flow to). Other pure carbon materials like graphite and nanotubes are good conductors and their simple structure allows more parallel flow of electrons. <br />
Electrons are attracted to more electronegative elements and that could have predictable effect on electrical conductivity.<br />
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For example insulating quartz is made of silicon and oxygen connected one after other. If electron flows through it then it is bit attracted to every oxygen atom on the way unlike to silicon atoms around oxygen which lose electrons easily. Electrons could flow relatively easily from silicon to oxygen but not from that oxygen to any neighboring silicon atom so in large scale glass is about as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistivity">conductive</a> as air or vacuum. That may be the main reason why pure silicon is about billion to trillion times more conductive than glass.<br />
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Above are 4 examples of transparent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductive_polymer">conductive polymers</a> which may be used in transmitting current through transparent materials like touch-screens. They also tend to have one type of element in main chain but there may be other elements in main chain like sulfur which has about 1% higher electronegativity than carbon. Possible that they are transparent while metals are reflective is due to only guiding energy in straight line not in every direction like in piece of metal. If light is polarized parallel to this chain it may more likely absorb but at same time allow light to pass if it is polarized in any other direction.<br />
Many non-conductive polymers have oxygen atoms in main chain like polyester which can easily collect static electricity but there are several non-conductive polymers which don't have anything in main chain beside usual carbon and hydrogen. <br />
Other special feature that these conductive polymers have is lack of charged parts next to main chain.<br />
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For example above structure is of non-conductive plexiglass. While main chain is carbon it has side chain that has oxygen atoms which could probably pull to the side any electrons that would move through main chain. Nylon has main chain with carbon and nitrogen but the the side it too has oxygen atoms that may interfere with its conductivity. <br />
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(Diode in above image) Electronegativity is in some ways used in electronics to create predictably routed flow of electrons by doping silicon with some element from group next to silicon. Adding aluminum (or other III A group element) would make it more positive (p-doped) and sulfur or arsenic from more electronegative 5th group can make it more negative (n-doped). 1 n-doped and 1 n-doped material connected together can create one way current in diodes. While electrons easily flow from negative area to more positive area, they may not flow at all in opposite direction or only if some high voltage pushed it against easy direction. Such setup is used in rectifiers to convert alternating current to direct current allowing only one way direction flow. Similar setup was used in cat whisker detectors in early radios that turned alternating current produced by absorbed radio waves in antenna into one way electricity. <br />
LEDs use such diodes to create light or electricity. If electrons flowing in one direction get at least 1,2 electron volts of energy then they will start to glow. Same LED could create current if it was exposed to energetic enough photons that could get electrons moving (most likely only in one direction due to larger resistance in other direction).<br />
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Electrical conductivity is close to thermal conductivity as electrons carry energy/heat about as fast as wires could carry electricity. In this regard electronegativity could be used to predict how well and in what direction will materials carry energy/electricity/heat with the precision close to size of atoms involved. This precision could potentially be further increased by using magnetic fields to align atomic nuclei (and their electron movements) with outside magnetic fields or by smaller magnetic field produced by local groups of atoms. Cooling near absolute zero may further help to keep precision of interactions between atoms. <br />
<br />Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com14tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-44868854515251617722012-10-02T08:50:00.001-07:002012-10-02T08:50:53.563-07:00About atomic structure of high-temperature superconductorsIn general superconductors work at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-temperature_superconductor">higher temperatures</a> if they are made of more chemical elements. Superconductors that are made of one metallic element are usually superconductive in temperatures less than 10 degrees above absolute zero while high-temperature superconductors (<b>HTS</b>) working up to over 100 degrees above absolute zero may have 5 different elements. Copper oxides are present in HTSs that work at the highest known superconductive temperatures and for some time all known HTSs had copper although oxygen seems needed in all HTSs. <br />
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Crystal structure of such ceramics or alloys have mirroring layers that keep repeating through material. For example following 3 HTSs all have repeating layers with mirroring order.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgXcxbIaSjSZPAlB-y1Nf8WjRXeiMsaM0icszkEakYO6CNnxClMF8mGsBuCdnJpE7wuyqABLxJSZSNIuNYn7K8SDDMTivF6lRhWqAgVqFwwryQcXNKNuYnpYNDX2QG9Lf9Rdie7Q5cFT_4/s1600/240px-TBCCO-2223_structure_schema_en.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9SlrXdbSfhpGovVFQYzanGPrSLLESfanu6gX6Tt-9g9hSntofjjPjqp4-GKSky-QQpum4UrQPF4G7PGqjRP5WjzXTnwOBh_iAHeQnNVOSnZbw6tb_qGDTfecvDGLija88WuSEFn762g4G/s1600/579px-TBCCO-2223_structure_schema_en.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9SlrXdbSfhpGovVFQYzanGPrSLLESfanu6gX6Tt-9g9hSntofjjPjqp4-GKSky-QQpum4UrQPF4G7PGqjRP5WjzXTnwOBh_iAHeQnNVOSnZbw6tb_qGDTfecvDGLija88WuSEFn762g4G/s320/579px-TBCCO-2223_structure_schema_en.svg.png" width="308" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thallium_barium_calcium_copper_oxide">TBCCO</a> (thallium barium calcium copper oxide).<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8T5uw7KeeE1yp1kJBz_brRp_eV5ojWhascV8rC76HH9A4H3xUmIQNVLHCKTiFaq94tlOOLZZPA9w1M7_IM2ybzTtESo-83dxOV7bIqyhH59nJ5qV5jo1w_WSsljrpZTZTfldZA4WUr277/s1600/320px-Ybco002.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8T5uw7KeeE1yp1kJBz_brRp_eV5ojWhascV8rC76HH9A4H3xUmIQNVLHCKTiFaq94tlOOLZZPA9w1M7_IM2ybzTtESo-83dxOV7bIqyhH59nJ5qV5jo1w_WSsljrpZTZTfldZA4WUr277/s320/320px-Ybco002.svg.png" width="225" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium_barium_copper_oxide">YBCO</a> (yttrium barium copper oxide).<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiH6SNoWrBuw__kwUXArtDtVG7hbvK2koK9mw4bcITdP17ZyUFgKc3vQriT1sAKeUJbmR8epLAM_sSc-IIHYqxwL7HJpSrFBbCyUZR6dPNA2sbWAq0zoCkanP3yUi_JYqbG_3z7IO4V-KZp/s1600/Bi2212_Unit_Cell.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiH6SNoWrBuw__kwUXArtDtVG7hbvK2koK9mw4bcITdP17ZyUFgKc3vQriT1sAKeUJbmR8epLAM_sSc-IIHYqxwL7HJpSrFBbCyUZR6dPNA2sbWAq0zoCkanP3yUi_JYqbG_3z7IO4V-KZp/s400/Bi2212_Unit_Cell.png" width="161" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth_strontium_calcium_copper_oxide">BSCCO</a> (bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide).<br />
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This ordering may be suitable to create regular flow of electrons. Table of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> can hint from where to where they'll flow. Calcium and barium have the lowest electronegativity among the above ingredients so they are most likely to lose electrons which flow to atoms that attract electrons stronger. Strongest attractors in TBCCO seems to be TlO layers (also labelled as "charge reservoirs" in above image) and BiO in BSCCO. Tl, Bi and O are all strong attractors of electrons although ionized calcium may eventually pull these electrons back. These layers provide somewhat flat few atom thick layers that move electrons easily. As these layers are so close to each others they may increase chances that electrons are always moving between layers due to pull between O and Ca or Ba. Superconductors levitate in magnetic field because they create magnetic field that opposes outside magnetic field. Charged particles in magnetic fields are forced to move circularly around magnetic field lines and in turn they themselves create magnetic field that opposes the outside magnetic field that caused circular movements for electrons and other charged particles. Having many charge reservoir layers every few atoms means that every microscopic part of HTS could locally react to outside magnetic field lines.Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-36207607706382786732012-10-02T04:38:00.001-07:002012-10-02T04:38:10.294-07:00CatalaseCatalase is protein that turns H2O2 into water and oxygen molecules. It is present in almost all organisms and bacteria that could survive in oxygen but it is usually missing in species that don't tolerate oxygen like bacteria that live deeper underground or in the bottom of stagnant water.<br />
In university biology class we each had to identify some bacteria by how they reacted to different substances. If bacteria tolerated oxygen then they started to bubble and foam after adding drop of hydrogen peroxide on them but lack of bubbles meant that those species couldn't survive well in oxygen. Same bubbling happens in larger organisms like in mushrooms, plants and animals. If wound is getting cleaned by H2O2 then it starts to bubble (not if it goes on undamaged skin). Likewise broken plant leaves would foam with H2O2 but not if it was added on unbroken leaves. Because body reacts this way to H2O2 it will also form bubbles deeper in body and also clog some small blood vessels near wound with small oxygen bubbles.Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-15836721259993533912012-09-14T07:09:00.000-07:002012-09-14T07:38:09.863-07:00Induction heatingIf paramagnetic substance gets magnetized then it will warm little bit. Single magnetization doesn't warm so much that skin could sense difference as iron put against magnet can demonstrate but <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_heating">induction heaters</a> use alternating currents with frequencies usually between 10-400 kHz so material can get magnetized in different directions over 800 000 times per second (in case of 400 kHz AC). Materials that magnetize easier warm up faster this way.<br />
Such heater are built somewhat like inductors where wire is coiled around some metal which absorbs energy from wires as magnetic energy but "wires" in these heaters are very thick as they need lot of current for quick magnetization plus these copper wires are often fluid cooled. Magnetic energy that wires create depends equally on amperes and number of wire turns around material (ampere-turns).<br />
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Example of some attributes of this heater. While it uses high current it is somewhat safe to touch metal while it is being heated without getting electrocuted. He holds bare fingers against it for several seconds before he starts to move them away from glowing part. He later touched the wires which didn't get very hot. Only the part between wires seems to heat up and this 15 kW heater got that metal glowing in about 10 seconds.Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4667693956656996457.post-64431345335884470692012-08-17T03:14:00.002-07:002012-08-17T03:14:49.358-07:00Food preservation with dehydration<br />
Food dehydration can preserve food without for several years if it stays dry enough. One upside of this method is that it can preserve any solid foodstuff from sweet plants to raw or cooked meat. Although highly enough concentrated salt or sugar preserves food against decay they have the downside of affecting how the food tastes.<br />
Although people have known for thousands of years that drying can preserve meat and other foodstuff they may still forget it when thinking about new foodstuff or about some specific company.<br />
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For example some McDonald's critics use logic that because their burgers don't rot or get moldy then they are supposedly full some scary preservatives or have no nutrition (even if they believe that its food makes people fatter). One McD burger had been kept for 14 years in room temperature without signs of rotting. Author of this <a href="http://aht.seriouseats.com/archives/2010/11/the-burger-lab-revisiting-the-myth-of-the-12-year-old-burger-testing-results.html">article</a> made his own burgers that he just dried out thoroughly enough. Small size of burgers made it easier to dry them but drying (article mentions ~93% water loss) could still take 3-7 days (depending on size) with the 73 C author knew about. Burgers without salt preserved about as well as salted ones. If burgers were kept in open air so they could absorb then McDonald's and homemade burgers both got moldy at same speed. If homemade humid burger was but in plastic bag with McD burger then within week they were both almost covered with mold.<br />
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Problem with water content is that it keeps enzymes/proteins working. Cells may die but proteins in this dead mass may keep breaking it up it there are any nutrients and large molecules left in this watery mix. That's one reason why pickles and homemade jams keep decaying no matter how thoroughly sterile they are. Proteins that build larger molecules mostly use energy so they can't function much after cell dies but the ones that break up glucose, fats, proteins and starch create energy in the process so old food keeps softening and losing nutrients with slow partial metabolism going on years after their cells died. On a small side note this relative independence of proteins from living cells means that if someone dies from alcohol or other drug overdose then their body would keep on breaking the drugs up if drug could be degraded by living body. <br />
Proteins can be deactivated by high enough heat but that denaturation temperature can be hundreds of degrees. Simple and ancient way to deactivate proteins is to use drying as proteins need water to function. Proteins involved in metabolism don't seem to work in liquid cooking oil which also preserve well. Replacing water with cooking oil can give sense that food is humid (cooking oil is one way to make dried burgers feel soft, moist and juicy). Märthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08838947627289670234noreply@blogger.com0